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One primary goal of physical education (PE) is to promote students' lifelong physical activity (PA). This goal implies that PE should not only improve students' PA in PE classes but also promote their PA outside of the school known as the "PE effect." Purpose: In this study, we proposed a two-pathway model of the "PE effect" and hypothesized that learning in PE and positive motivational experience in PE are two possible pathways through which the "PE effect" emerges. We tested the tenability of this two-pathway model from the perspective of knowledge learning and autonomous motivation in PE. Methods: A total of 394 eighth-grade students from five schools provided data on PA knowledge, out-of-school PA, and autonomous motivation toward PE and PA. Structural equation modeling was used to test the two-pathway model. Results: Results showed that the students' knowledge had a direct effect (β = .18, p < .05) on their autonomous motivation for PA and an indirect effect (β = .02, p < .05) on out-of-school PA through influencing autonomous motivation toward PA. Students' autonomous motivation for PE had a direct effect (β = .41, p < .05) on their autonomous motivation toward PA and an indirect effect (β = .04, p < .05) on out-of-school PA through autonomous motivation toward PA. Conclusion: These results indicate that the two-pathway model is tenable in terms of knowledge learning and autonomous motivation in PE and imply that teaching knowledge in an autonomy-supportive PE environment may be an effective way to promote students' out-of-school PA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Acquiring scientific knowledge about physical activity is necessary for students to become physically literate for life, and cognitive engagement and cognitive levels of tasks are two components that often determine the effectiveness of knowledge acquisition. This study sought to determine the extent to which students' cognitive engagement in descriptive, relational and reasoning learning tasks contributed to their acquisition of knowledge and the extent to which cognitive engagement on lower-level tasks contributed to higher-level tasks (e.g. descriptive to relational to reasoning). The performance of students in descriptive, relational and reasoning tasks and knowledge acquisition was measured in 992 middle school students in active physical education lessons. The results revealed that students' performance in relational (regression coefficient = 0.09, p < 0.01) and reasoning (regression coefficient = 0.06, p < 0.01) tasks directly contributed to their acquisition of knowledge (R2 = 0.14). The performance of students in descriptive tasks indirectly contributed to knowledge acquisition through influencing their performance in relational and reasoning tasks (indirect effect = 0.09, p < 0.01). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are substantial differences between the Chinese and US education systems. One difference is in the design and use of assessment due to differences in educational policies. This study described the differences in student learning outcomes, instructional approaches, and learner motivation in physical education as consequences of the policies in the two countries. Objectively measured data on skill and knowledge achievement and instructional procedures, and self-report data on student motivation were collected from a random sample of 870 students in 24 whole classes from eight Chinese middle schools and 1213 students in 39 classes from 15 US middle schools. Multivariate analyses of variance on class means revealed that Chinese students outperformed their US peers in skills, perhaps because skills were part of the high-stake tests for advancement in schooling. They were outperformed by the US students in a fitness knowledge test, perhaps because knowledge was not part of the high-stake tests. The differences in learning outcomes, instructional approaches, and motivation seem to suggest strong differentiated influences from the two countries' respective educational environments and assessment policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to explore and reveal naïve conceptions and misconceptions about energy embedded in elementary school students’ prior knowledge. Students’ performance on standardized knowledge test was used to classify students into low, median and high levels of knowledge about the cardiovascular system. Semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted with students in each group to extract their understanding of energy in relation to food choices, physical activities, and exercises. Analysis of the interview data generated six categories of naïve conceptions and two categories of misconceptions. Different conceptual change theories, including Chi’s ontological change theory, Ohlsson’s resubsumption theory, and enculturation theory were used to analyze and understand these naïve conceptions and misconceptions and why they could be robust to change. The analyses confirm the need to adopt a multi-theoretical approach to the understanding of students’ naïve conceptions and misconceptions (Chinn & Samarapungavan, 2009. Conceptual change-multiple routes, multiple mechanisms: A commentary on Ohlsson. Educational Psychologist, 44(1), 1-10). The findings encourage physical and health educators adopt different strategies to address the potential learning obstacles brought by students’ naïve conceptions and misconceptions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the job demands--resources model, the study developed and validated an instrument that measures physical education teachers' job demands--resources perception. Expert review established content validity with the average item rating of 3.6/5.0. Construct validity and reliability were determined with a teacher sample (n = 397). Exploratory factor analysis established a five-dimension construct structure matching the theoretical construct deliberated in the literature. The composite reliability scores for the five dimensions range from .68 to .83. Validity coefficients (intraclass correlational coefficients) are .69 for job resources items and .82 for job demands items. Inter-scale correlational coefficients range from -.32 to .47. Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the construct validity with high dimensional factor loadings (ranging from .47 to .84 for job resources scale and from .50 to .85 for job demands scale) and adequate model fit indexes (root mean square error of approximation = .06). The instrument provides a tool to measure physical education teachers' perception of their working environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research has shown that interest in knowledge facilitates students' academic achievement in learning. Because individual interest is often based on how much one knows, in other words existing or prior knowledge, studying adolescents' interest in health-enhancing physical activity and its benefits should address the relation between the interest and their existing or prior physical activity knowledge. Understanding this relationship may help us facilitate students to not only develop interest in knowing more about but also actual adopt a healthy, active lifestyle. This study used a large-sample structural equation design to identify the relationship between middle school students' interest in physical activity knowledge and their prior physical activity knowledge, and to assess the change of this relationship over time. Guided by the declarative-procedural knowledge framework, latent growth models were developed and tested on data collected from a random sample of 3882 students from ten middle schools. The latent growth curve model indicated that, 1) on average, students experienced a significant interest decline in both procedural and declarative knowledge; 2) prior knowledge helped slow the decline and facilitated interest growth in knowledgeable students. The results suggest that existing knowledge determined the interest change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Physical education and health education are relevant avenues for adolescents to learn knowledge and behavior related to energy-balanced living. Grounded in the framework theory of conceptual change, this study examined ninth graders' energy balance knowledge (i.e., concepts, principles, and strategies underlying the scientific mechanism and the outcome of energy balanced/imbalanced living) and physical activity in a healthful-living curriculum (i.e. combination of physical education and health). The students (N =195) were measured using concept mapping, accelerometers, and three-day physical activity recall. It was found that the students differed in energy balance knowledge where most (83%) lacked a higher-order relational understanding. Physical activity in physical education class or after school did not significantly differ by students' mental model levels concerning energy balance knowledge. The findings suggest that an ecological learning context with moderate physical activity should be provided to help students make sense of energy balance knowledge through lived experiences. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Motivation to learn is a disposition developed through exposure to learning opportunities. Guided by the expectancy-value theory of Eccles and Wigfield (1995), this study examined the extent to which expectancy belief and task value influenced elementary school students’ physical activity and knowledge learning in physical education (PE). Students (N = 753) from 15 US public schools contributed student-level and class-level data. With a 2-level design, the data were analyzed using hierarchical linear modeling. Physical activity (t = 3.18; p < .01) positively predicted fitness knowledge. Attainment value (i.e. perception of importance) as the only expectancy-value construct, significantly predicted fitness knowledge (t = 3.07; p < .01), when physical activity was held constant. As the physical activity intensity increased, the positive prediction of attainment value to knowledge attenuated and then turned negative (t = –3.10; p < .01). The study indicated that although a physically-active context helps students to make sense of fitness knowledge, a vigorous context shifts their motivation away from cognitive learning, toward physical participation. To resolve the difficulty of attaining learning objectives both physically and cognitively, PE teachers may want to maintain an active learning context with moderate physical intensity. Future research should address the effect of learner motivation on dual or multiple learning outcomes in PE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This study reports adolescent expectancy-value motivation, and its relation to fitness knowledge and psychomotor skill learning in physical education. Students (N =854) from 12 middle schools provided data on expectancy-value motivation, fitness knowledge and psychomotor skill learning. Results from dependent t-test and MANOVA indicated that 8th grade students rated task values significantly lower than 6th grade while their expectancy beliefs did not significantly differ. Students gained sizable fitness knowledge (d =0.58, p <0.05) and badminton skill (d =1.40, p <0.05). Multiple regression analyses revealed that expectancy-value motivation did not significantly predict learning in fitness knowledge or psychomotor skills. These findings suggest that expectancy-value motivation might predict engagement and performance, but not necessarily learning achievement in physical education. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Students’ learning has been the center of schooling. This study examined the contribution of situational interest motivation and cognitive engagement in workbooks to student achievement in learning health-related fitness knowledge. Situational interest, performance on solving workbook problems, and knowledge gain in cardio-respiratory fitness and benefits were measured in 670 third-grade students from 13 randomly selected urban elementary schools. Structural equation modeling and regression curve estimation analyses revealed that situational interest contributed little to workbook performance and knowledge gain. Performance on solving workbook problems contributed significantly to knowledge gain. The results also show that skipping workbook tasks had stronger negative impact on knowledge gain than performing the tasks incorrectly, suggesting the importance of engaging students in the learning process by attempting the workbook tasks. The findings reinforced the value of using workbooks to facilitate cognitive knowledge learning in physical education, but raised questions about the direct function of situational interest on engaging students in cognitive learning. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Achievement goals and interests are recognized as primary motivators for learning in physical education. The study examined the dynamics of the motivators as associated with organized outside-school physical activity experiences and learning outcomes. Data of achievement goals, personal interest, learning outcomes, and outside-school experiences were gathered from students (N=104) randomly selected from two middle schools. The correlation analysis revealed a complex relationship among the motivators and learning outcomes. The MANOVA showed that the students participating in organized outside-school physical activities had a stronger ego-goal orientation and were more physically active in learning. Their knowledge and skill assessment outcomes did not differ from other students. The findings suggest that participation in outside-school programs may result in an active engagement, but may not lead to a paralleled learning achievement. These findings depicted a complex and dynamic web of relationships between the motivators and learning outcomes that needs to be addressed in future research. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The purpose of this study was to examine individual and situational interests in learning motor skills as associated with gender and skill. Individual and situational interests and motor skill were measured in middle school girls (n = 109) and boys (n = 82). A correlation analysis for the entire sample showed a moderate correlation between skill and individual interest (r = .63) and weak relationships between individual and situational interest (r < .10) and between situational interest and skill (r < .18). A MANOVA analysis revealed a difference between the boys and girls in situational interest at a borderline significance level (p = .05). However, when individual interest, skill, and gender were compared between students with high or low situational interest in a hierarchical log linear model, it was found that both groups did not differ in number of boys and girls (p = .98). But the high situational interest group had more students with high skill (p = .001) and high individual interest (p = .02). The results suggest that discrepancies in acquired skill accounted for the gender difference and that acquired skill is associated with individual interest and high situational interest in learning motor skills. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Examines the patterns of holding interest for physical activities in a state physical education curriculum for secondary schools. Determination and analysis of patterns; Types of interest; Activities associated with patterns; Basis of holding interest; Focus for curricular decisions.

Describes physical educators' value orientations for curricular decision making in urban and rural teaching settings. Role of beliefs in curricular decision making; Priority on self-actualization and social responsibility; Differences in school contexts in urban and rural schools.

Discusses the domain specifications and content representativeness of the revised value orientation inventory (VOI) for physical education teachers. VOI revision process; Disciplinary mastery; Learning process; Self-actualization; Ecological integration; Social reconstruction.

Purpose: It has been acknowledged in physical education (PE) that knowledge empowers learners to develop a physically active lifestyle In this study, we consider Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) as a valuable extension of the constructivist learning theory to help articulate the role of three pivotal instructional factors, content knowledge, learners, and instructional process, in learning fitness knowledge in PE. Guided by CLT, this study was intended to identify middle school students' cognitive architecture about aerobic and anaerobic concepts and pedagogical factors that might enhance or limit scientific conceptualization. Methods: We employed a mixed-methods approach. A total of 291 students randomly drawn from the 24 schools provided data on conceptual knowledge levels via standardized test and conceptual structures of understanding via semi-structured interviews about the aerobic/anaerobic concepts. Results: Results from integrated quantitative and qualitative analyses reveal the role of task element interactivity as a function of conceptualization in the students' cognitive architecture. The students lack the understanding that aerobic and anaerobic concepts are associated with the concepts of complex metabolic systems that dictate the energy pathways experienced in physical activity. Their understandings are characterized by a tendency of overly simplifying the complex conceptions for convenient schema activation. The simplified conception is likely to prohibit their understanding from becoming consistent with the science. The findings suggest that teachers should anticipate lack of understanding of knowledge connectivity when teaching fitness concepts and establish the task element interactivity with enhanced clarity to facilitate knowledge learning. Conclusion: Consistent with the constructivist learning theory, the findings inform us that teaching complex fitness concepts require the teacher to connect prior knowledge as a prerequisite to activate relevant cognitive architecture and actively build connections between the prior knowledge and the to-be learned concepts. PE curriculum designers and teachers should anticipate the complex challenges in teaching the aerobic and anaerobic concepts because of their connections to other concepts associated with human energy systems such as intensity and oxygen supply. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents information on the findings of a study which was conducted to elicit interpretations of boredom perceived by high school students repeating their required physical education course. Study's examination of the resistance model; Methods used in the study.

Purpose: It is argued that the constructivist physical education has the potential to overcome socioeconomic (SES) constraints and promote learning. The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which school SES-related class environmental factors influenced student learning in a constructivist physical education context. Methods: Students in 8th grade (N = 1,256) from 10 middle schools with varied SES were tested on exercise knowledge before and after a constructivist physical education intervention. School SES was determined using free and reduced meal ratio (FARM) and physical education related factors. Data on lesson frequency, length, facilities, equipment, and class size were collected from teachers. Results: Hierarchical linear model analyses reveal that SES is not predictive of intervention induced learning ( γ = 0.73, t =.91, p =.37). Lesson frequency ( γ 02 =.52, t =.31, p =.06), length ( γ 03 = −.03, t = −1.82, p =.07), facilities ( γ 04 = −.11, t = −.49, p =.63), equipment ( γ 05 = −.36, t = −1.36, p =.18), and class size ( γ 06 = −.05, t = −1.36, p =.18) are not predictive of learning. Student prior knowledge ( γ = −.59, t = −18.37, p <.001) and teacher factor ( γ =.04, t = 3.72, p <.001) are predictive of learning. Conclusion: The findings suggest that school SES's detrimental impact on learning in physical education could be overcome by the power of a constructivist curriculum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Expectancy-Value Questionnaire (EVQ) measures student expectancy beliefs and task values of the domain content (Eccles & Wigfield, 1995).In this study the authors examine measurement invariance of EVQ in the domain of physical education between elementary and middle-school students. Participants included 811 students (3rd–5th grades) from 13 elementary and 903 (6th–8th grades) from 13 middle schools. Students completed the EVQ in their physical education classes within the same semester. A series of hierarchical steps for testing the measurement invariance were conducted based on means and covariance structures. The results suggest that the questionnaire possesses configural and metric invariance, but noninvariant item intercepts between these two groups of students (∆CFI > .05). EVQ can be used to measure expectancy-value constructs in physical education for both middle-school and elementary students. Yet the noninvariant item intercepts posted questions on how the measured construct difference should be interpreted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Students'' different perceptions of task values influence their learning experience and achievement in physical education. Framed using the subjective task value construct, this study was conducted to determine the extent to which male and female Chinese middle schoolers with different body sizes differed in their perception of the task values. A second goal of the study was to identify the extent to which the task values along with gender and body size predicted students'' performance on knowledge and physical skill tests. Data from a random sample of students (N =860) from eight Chinese middle schools revealed that the boys appreciated intrinsic (p =.001) and utility values (p =02); both boys and girls, however, equally appreciated the attainment value (p =.73). The boys performed better in physical skill tests than the girls (p =.001), whereas the girls scored higher in knowledge tests than the boys (p =.04). Regression analyses revealed that gender is the only predictor for performance on both knowledge and skill tests. Utility value and body size were predictors for skill, not for knowledge. These findings indicate that Chinese middle school boys and girls differed in valuing and achieving in physical education. The findings imply that Chinese boys need to strengthen cognitive learning and girls need to strengthen psychomotor skill development in physical education. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background: Curriculum fidelity describes the extent to which a curriculum is implemented faithfully as planned. Curriculum fidelity issues may arise when teachers implement the curriculum inconsistently due to differences in philosophy, barriers in the setting, or other local concerns. Purpose: The study examined challenges that a teacher faced in implementing a constructivist physical education curriculum that had fidelity implications. Research design: Ethnographic case study design was employed in the research. Participants and setting: One physical education teacher, 'Daniel', and his students in the third, fourth, and fifth grades participated in the study as they were involved in a curriculum intervention in a large urban school district in the US. Daniel's school was randomly assigned to an experimental group to implement a physical education curriculum based on health/fitness-related science. Data collection: The researchers observed 75 lessons taught by Daniel using non-participant observation techniques and conducted two structured interviews with Daniel and eight interviews with his students. Data analysis: Constant comparison with open and axial coding was used to analyze the observation and interview data. Findings: Two thematic challenges emerged: (1) school contextual constraints that limited the fitness science learning environment in physical education, and (2) Daniel's personal values and preference for a recreational rather than a science-based physical education program. These challenges impacted Daniel's decisions when teaching the curriculum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose:A primary goal of physical education is to develop physically literate individuals with the knowledge, skills, and confidence necessary for a physically active lifestyle. Guided by the expectancy-value and interest motivation theories, the purpose of this study was to identify the relationship between students' motivation and health-related fitness knowledge developed in physical education and their after-school physical activity participation.Method:Third-, 4th-, and 5th-grade students (N = 293) from 6 elementary schools in a large metropolitan school district in the United States provided data on expectancy beliefs and perceived task values, situational interest, health-related fitness knowledge, and after-school physical activity. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and a simultaneous multiple regression model.Results:It was found that expectancy beliefs (β = .20,t = 2.16,p = .03) and perceived exploration demand (β = .25,t = 2.58,p = .01), a source for situational interest, were positively related to after-school physical activity. The 2 variables, however, accounted for only 11.2% of the variances for children's after-school physical activity participation.Conclusion:This study demonstrates that students' active exploration and expectancy beliefs for success in physical education have limited influence on leisure-time physical activity participation. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Conceptual knowledge development in physical education is critical to helping learners become physically literate. Understanding physical education learners' long-term knowledge development is one of the first steps in designing effective curriculum. Guided by the constructivist learning theory, this study aimed to determining the extent to which the cardiorespiratory fitness knowledge learned in the first year contributed to further knowledge development in the second year. A two-year longitudinal design was adopted to track 716 students' learning documented in their physical education workbook from sixth grade to seventh grade. Canonical correlation and multivariate multiple regression analyses were conducted to determine the relationship of learning during the two years. The results showed that student knowledge development in the first year did facilitate their knowledge development in the second year (R c = 0.54; Wilks' λ = 0.69, F (9, 1728.1) = 30.99, p <.01, η 2 =.31). Specifically, students' three types of knowledge development (descriptive, relational, and reasoning) were all significant contributors (descriptive: Wilks' λ = 0.96, F (3, 710) = 9.34, p <.01, η 2 =.04; relational: Wilks' λ = 0.98, F (3, 710) = 4.44, p <.01, η 2 =.02; reasoning: Wilks' λ = 0.90, F (3, 710) = 26.13, p <.01, η 2 =.10) to their further learning with the knowledge development from the reasoning assignments to be the strongest facilitator. Students' overall learning in the first year significantly contributed to their descriptive (R 2 = 0.12), relational (R 2 = 0.26), and reasoning (R 2 = 0.21) knowledge learning in the second year. • The nature of the learning task influences students' further learning • Knowledge learning from the high-level cognitive tasks was a stronger facilitator for further knowledge learning • Cognitive learning tasks can be integrated in physical education to further knowledge learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]