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We aimed to describe the frequency of showering after physical education (PE) in English high-school pupils. We examined differences in physical activity (PA) and cardiorespiratory fitness according to showering behaviours and examined predictors of showering. We measured PA and cardiorespiratory fitness of n = 3921 pupils (11-16 years, 53.5% males) from eight high schools. Pupils self-reported showering behaviour and parental PA levels. We calculated deprivation and distance travelled to school from their home postcode. Overall, 53% of boys and 68% of girls said they never shower after PE. Pupils who did not shower after PE were less physically active and engaged in fewer team sports. Girls who did not shower also had lower cardiorespiratory fitness than those who did. Showering behaviour varied greatly by school, so we adjusted for clustering at the school level. Pupils were more likely to shower if they were active with their parents [odds ratio (OR) = 1.72; 95% CI: 1.43, 2.07] and less likely to shower if they were from deprived areas (OR = 0.68; 95% CI: 0.52, 0.88). Showering after PE is relatively rare in English schoolchildren, particularly girls. While we cannot infer causality regarding the relationships found here, the low rates of showering and the lower PA and cardiorespiratory fitness (in girls) observed in schoolchildren who do not shower suggest research is needed to determine whether showering is a barrier to being physically active during PE.

Objective: To determine whether active school travel is associated with muscular fitness, which is an emerging marker of youth health., Methods: Handgrip strength, vertical jump and vertical jump peak power were measured in n=6829 English schoolchildren (53% males, age 12.9 ± 1.2 years) between 2007 and 2011. Participants were grouped according to self-reported habitual school travel modality., Results: Cyclists had greater handgrip strength than passive travelers. Vertical jump height was greater in walkers and cyclists compared with passive travelers. Jump peak power was also higher in walkers than in the passive travel group. Compared with passive travelers, cyclists had a higher (age, sex and BMI-adjusted) likelihood of good handgrip strength (OR 1.42, 95%CI;1.14-1.76) and walkers were more likely to have good measures for vertical jump peak power (OR 1.14, 95%CI;1.00-1.29). Cyclists' likelihood of having good handgrip strength remained significantly higher when adjusted for physical activity (OR 1.29, 95%CI;1.08-1.46)., Conclusion: Muscular fitness differs according to school travel habits. Cycling is independently associated with better handgrip strength perhaps due to the physical demands of the activity. Better muscular fitness may provide another health-related reason to encourage active school travel., (Copyright © 2014. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Objectives: Cross-cultural comparisons in children's body composition, health-related fitness and physical activity (PA) are rare due to a shortage of comparable data, but such comparisons may help avert worrying global prevalence in childhood obesity, and declining fitness and PA., Methods: We drew samples of Canadian and English children (10 years, n=1630, 50% boys) and adolescents (15 years, n=1406, 56% boys) from three separate, regional studies that conducted comparable school-based assessments (2006-2011). For each age-sex group, we assessed between-country differences for body composition (mass, height, BMI, waist circumference), cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF; 20 m shuttle run test), strength (handgrip) and self-reported PA. We used multiple regression to investigate whether between-country differences in fitness were explained by body composition and PA., Results: At any age, Canadian boys and girls were taller, heavier, and had greater BMIs and waist circumferences. English children had higher CRF than Canadians, which was explained by differences in body composition and PA. Canadian children were significantly stronger, partly due to greater body size. There were no between-country differences in adolescent boys. Canadian adolescent girls reported more PA than their English counterparts, but neither PA nor body size explained why Canadian adolescent girls had greater CRF or strength., Conclusion: Future cross-cultural studies of PA should include indices of growth and fitness to better understand the relationship between intricate differences in PA and health outcomes.

The relative age effect (RAE) describes the relationship between an individual's birth month and their level of attainment in sports. There is a clustering of birth dates just after the cutoff used for selection in age-grouped sports, and it is hypothesized that such relatively older sportspeople may enjoy maturational and physical advantages over their younger peers. There is, however, little empirical evidence of any such advantage. This study investigated whether schoolchildren's physical performance differed according to which quarter of the school year they were born in. Mass, stature, body mass index, cardiorespiratory fitness, strength, and power were measured in 10 to 16 year olds (n = 8,550, 53% male). We expressed test performance as age- and sex-specific z-scores based on reference data with age rounded down to the nearest whole year and also as units normalized for body mass. We then compared these values between yearly birth quarters. There were no significant main effects for differences in anthropometric measures in either sex. Girls born in the first quarter of the school year were significantly stronger than those born at other times when handgrip was expressed as a z-score. As z-scores, all measures were significantly higher in boys born in either the first or second yearly quarters. Relative to body mass, cardiorespiratory fitness was higher in boys born in the first quarter and power was higher in those born in the second quarter. The RAE does not appear to significantly affect girls' performance test scores when they are expressed as z-score or relative to body mass. Boys born in the first and second quarters of the year had a significant physical advantage over their relatively younger peers. These findings have practical bearing if coaches use fitness tests for talent identification and team selection. Categorizing test performance based on rounded down values of whole-year age may disadvantage children born later in the selection year. These relatively younger children may be less to gain selection for teams or training programmes.

Objective: Cardiorespiratory fitness is known to be cardioprotective and its association with the components of the metabolic syndrome in children is becoming clearer. The aim of the present study was to examine the extent to which cardiorespiratory fitness may offset the weight-related association with mean arterial pressure (MAP) in schoolchildren., Design: Cross-sectional study., Settings: Schoolchildren from the East of England, U.K., Subjects: A total of 5983 (48% females) schoolchildren, 10 to 16 years of age, had height, weight and blood pressure measured by standard procedures and cardiorespiratory fitness assessed by the 20 m shuttle-run test. Participants were classified as fit or unfit using internationally accepted fitness cut-off points; and as normal weight, overweight or obese based on BMI, again using international cut-off points. Age-adjusted ANCOVA was used to determine the main effects and interaction of fitness and BMI on MAP Z-score. Logistic regression models were used to estimate odds ratios of elevated MAP., Results: Prevalence of elevated MAP in schoolchildren was 14.8% overall and 35.7% in those who were obese-unfit. Approximately 21% of participants were overweight and 5% obese, while 23% were classified as unfit. MAP generally increased across BMI categories and was higher in the aerobically unfit participants. Obese-fit males had lower MAP compared with obese-unfit males (P < 0.001); this trend was similar in females (P = 0.05)., Conclusions: Increasing fitness level may have a positive impact on the weight-related elevations of MAP seen in obese and overweight schoolchildren.

Background: The Physical Activity Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents (PAQ-C/-A) provides general estimates of physical activity levels. Following recent expert recommendations for using the PAQ for population surveillance, the aim of this paper was twofold: first, to describe normative PAQ data for English youth; and second, to determine a criterion-referenced PAQ-score cut-off point., Methods: Participants (n = 7226, 53% boys, 10-15 years) completed an anglicized version of the PAQ. Peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak ) was predicted from PACER lap count according to latest FITNESSGRAM standards and categorized into "at-risk" and "no-risk" for metabolic syndrome. ROC curves were drawn for each age-sex group to identify PAQ scores, which categorized youth into "sufficiently active" versus "low-active" groups, using cardiorespiratory fitness as the criterion-referenced standard., Results: PAQ scores were higher in boys than in girls and declined with age. Mean PAQ score was a significant, albeit relatively weak (area under the curve < 0.7) discriminator between "at-risk" and "no-risk." PAQ scores of ≥2.9 for boys and ≥2.7 for girls were identified as cut-off points, although it may be more appropriate to use lower, age-specific PAQ scores for girls of 13, 14 and 15 years (2.6, 2.4, 2.3, respectively)., Conclusion: The normative and criterion-referenced PAQ values may be used to standardize and categorize PAQ scores in future youth population studies., (© 2013 The Authors. Pediatrics International © 2013 Japan Pediatric Society.)

Background: Parental behavior is an important correlate of child health. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between perceived parental physical activity (PA) and schoolchildren's aerobic fitness., Methods: English schoolchildren's (n = 4029, 54% boys, 10.0-15.9 yrs) fitness was assessed by 20 m shuttle run test and categorized using criterion-referenced standards. Parental PA was reported by the child., Results: Boys and girls were more likely to be fit (OR 1.4, 95% CI 1.1-1.8; OR 1.5, 95% CI 1.1-2.0; respectively) if at least 1 parent was perceived as active compared with when neither parents were. Girls were even more likely to be fit (OR 1.8, 95% CI 1.2-2.8) if both parents were active. Associations between parental PA and child fitness were generally stronger when parent and child were of the same gender, although girls with active fathers were more likely (OR 2.5, 95% CI 1.7-3.7) to be fit compared with inactive fathers., Conclusion: Schoolchildren perceiving at least 1 parent as active are more likely to meet health-related fitness standards. Underlying mechanisms remain elusive, but same-gender associations suggest that social rather than genetic factors are of greater importance. Targeting parental PA or at least perceptions of parental PA should be given consideration in interventions aiming to improve child health.

Purpose: Schoolchildren who cycle to school have higher cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) than those who are driven or use public transport. The purpose of this study was to determine whether recreational cycling is similarly associated with CRF., Methods: Participants were 5578 (54% males) English schoolchildren (10.0-15.9 yr). All reported frequency of recreational cycling events via 7-d recall. Responses were categorized as follows: "noncyclists" = 0, "occasional cyclists" = 1-4, or "regular cyclists" = 5+ (times per week). CRF was assessed using the 20-m shuttle run test with performance classified as "fit" or "unfit" based on FITNESSGRAM standards., Results: Overall, 26% of males and 46% of females were noncyclists. Compared with noncyclists, the 40% of males and 42% of females classified as occasional cyclists were more likely to be fit (males: odds ratio (OR) = 1.30, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.07-1.59; females: OR = 1.41, 95% CI = 1.13-1.76). Regular cyclists (34% males and 12% females) had a greater likelihood still of being classified as fit (males: OR = 1.58, 95% CI = 1.29-1.95; females: OR = 1.55, 95% CI = 1.09-2.20). No odds remained significant after adjusting for physical activity. Removal of participants who cycled to school had little overall effect on the likelihood of being classified as being fit., Conclusions: Previous research has focused only on young people's commuter cycling habits, at the expense of the more common activity of recreational cycling. Recreational cycling may provide an alternative target for interventions to increase physical activity and improve CRF youth. Recreational cycling could potentially serve as a way to gain cycling confidence and establish habits that act as precursors to commuter cycling.

The aim of this study was to provide normative data for performance on the 20 m shuttle-run test of cardiorespiratory fitness in English schoolchildren. A total of 7366 10-16 year olds completed the 20 m shuttle-run test. We expressed performance as the number of shuttles completed, test score (shuttles and levels) and estimated peak oxygen consumption (VO2peak). We calculated descriptive statistics for each age-sex group to construct percentile curves and tables. To assess the cardiorespiratory fitness of our sample, we calculated the number of participants who fell below proposed cut-offs for low cardiorespiratory fitness based on either completed shuttles or VdotO2peak. These cut-offs did not agree in terms of frequency of classification. The classification based on estimated VO2peak suggested low fitness was more prevalent in males and that the incidence of low fitness increased with age in both sexes. These are the first normative data for shuttle-run performance in English youth and can now be used to interpret data from this cardiorespiratory fitness test. The two cut-offs used for low fitness did not agree and future research should establish a cut-off for test performance which can predict present or future ill-health.

Background: The aim of the present study was to determine if there were differences in cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and body mass index (BMI) in rural versus urban youth., Methods: We measured BMI in 6628 10.0-15.9-year-olds and classified them as normal weight, overweight or obese. CRF was assessed with a 20-m shuttle-run test and subjects were classified as unfit, fit or highly fit. Rural or urban dwelling was calculated from postcodes., Results: There were no differences in frequency of BMI categories or CRF between rural and urban children (<13 years) or adolescents (>13 years). Rural adolescents were less likely to be fit (OR = 0.80; 95%CI 0.67-0.96) or highly fit (OR = 0.69; 95%CI 0.55-0.86) independent of their age, sex, race or level of deprivation., Conclusions: Whilst there were no differences evident in children <13 years, rural adolescents were significantly less likely to meet criterion-based cut-off points for CRF. Research to elucidate why such differences exist is warranted., (© 2011 The Authors. Pediatrics International © 2011 Japan Pediatric Society.)

Although vertical jumping is often incorporated into physical activity tests for both adults and children, normative data for children and adolescents are lacking in the literature. The objectives of this study were to provide normative data of jump height and predicted peak leg power for males and females aged 10.0-15.9 years. Altogether, 1845 children from 12 state primary and secondary schools in the East of England participated in the study. Each child performed two countermovement jumps, and jump height was calculated using a NewTest jump mat. The highest jump was used for analysis and in the calculation of predicted peak power. Jump height and predicted peak leg power were significantly higher for males than females from the age of 11 years. Jump height and peak power increased significantly year on year for males. For females, jump height and predicted peak leg power reached a plateau after age 12 and 13 years respectively. This study provides normative data that can be used as a tool to classify jumping performance in children aged 10-15 years.

Purpose: Cycling to school is positively associated with aerobic fitness in Danish schoolchildren and adolescents. The aim of the present study was to determine whether a positive association exists between active travel and aerobic fitness in English schoolchildren, where cycling to school is rare., Methods: Participants (n = 6085, 47% girls, aged 10.0-15.9 yr) were recruited as part of the East of England Healthy Hearts study. Mass and stature were measured, and body mass index (BMI) was calculated. Aerobic fitness was assessed using the 20-m shuttle run test (20-mSRT); mode of travel to school and physical activity (PA) were assessed by a questionnaire. Differences in BMI, PA, and fitness by travel mode were assessed by ANOVA and ANCOVA. Participants were categorized as "fit" or "unfit" on the basis of existing cutoffs related to adult health. Logistic regression was applied to calculate age, BMI, and PA-adjusted odds of being classified as fit according to travel mode., Results: Walking was the most common travel mode to school (50%), and cycling was least frequent (8%). Walkers and cyclists of both sexes were significantly fitter than passive transport users, even after controlling for PA. Walking and cycling were associated with an increased likelihood of being categorized as fit in boys and girls. After adjustment for PA, this association remained significant only in girls. No association was observed between travel mode and BMI., Conclusions: These data confirm findings from countries where cycling is very common in showing that cycling to school is positively associated with aerobic fitness. This study adds to the existing literature by showing that walkers and cyclists are more likely to be classified as fit using recognized cut points. Those who walk and cycle to school may, therefore, be at reduced risk for developing chronic diseases in adulthood.

Recent international normative data for the 20-m shuttle-run test demonstrated a below-average performance index for UK children. The aims of the present study were to create an international comparison of 20-m shuttle-run test performance in a sample of English children and to identify age- and sex-specific differences in test performance. Mass, stature, body mass index, and 20-m shuttle-run test performance were measured in 2041 children aged 11 - 15 years (963 boys, 1078 girls). Performance was expressed as maximum running velocity and a performance index was created by generating z-scores. The shuttle-run test performance index was higher than the existing published value (-0.046, 95% confidence interval [CI] -0.070 to -0.022) for all children (0.061, 95% CI = 0.006 to 0.115), for boys (0.075, 95% CI = -0.022 to 0.171), and for girls (0.048, 95% CI = -0.010 to 0.106). Boys' relative performance increased significantly (F = 4.43, P = 0.002) throughout the measured age range, whereas girls' relative performance tended to decrease (F = 1.98, P = 0.096). The results were favourable when compared with existing values. Differences in performance index may be due to the different geographical areas from which present and past samples were drawn. Reasons for differences in the performance indices between boys and girls warrant further investigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]