Search

We report on the development and demonstration of a MHz frequency domain multiplexing (FDM) technology to read out arrays of cryogenic transition edge sensor (TES) X-ray microcalorimeters. In our FDM scheme, TESs are AC-biased at different resonant frequencies in the low MHz range through an array of high-$Q$ LC resonators. The current signals of all TESs are summed at superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs). We have demonstrated multiplexing for a readout of 31 pixels using room temperature electronics, high-$Q$ LC filters and TES arrays developed at SRON, and SQUID arrays from VTT. We repeated this on a second setup with 37 pixels. The summed X-ray spectral resolutions $@$ 5.9 keV are $\Delta E_{\rm 31 pix ~MUX}=2.14\pm0.03$ eV and $\Delta E_{\rm 37 pix ~MUX}=2.23\pm0.03$ eV. The demonstrated results are comparable with other multiplexing approaches. There is potential to further improve the spectral resolution and to increase the number of multiplexed TESs, and to open up applications for TES X-ray microcalorimeters., Comment: 6 pages, 3 figures, accepted for publication on Applied physics letters

Large format arrays of transition edge sensor (TES) are crucial for the next generation of X-ray space observatories. Such arrays are required to achieve an energy resolution of $\mathrm{\Delta }E 3 eV full-width-half-maximum (FWHM) in the soft X-ray energy range. We are currently developing X-ray microcalorimeter arrays as a backup option for the X-IFU instrument on board of ATHENA space telescope, led by ESA and foreseen to be launched in 2031. In this contribution, we report on the development and the characterization of a uniform 32 × 32 pixel array with (length × width) 140 × 30 $\mu$ m $^2$ TiAu TESs, which have a 2.3 $\mu$ m thick Au absorber for X-ray photons. The pixels have a typical normal resistance $R_{\mathrm{n}}$ = 121 m $\Omega$ and a critical temperature $T_{\mathrm{c}}\sim$ 90 mK. We performed extensive measurements on 60 pixels out of the array in order to show the uniformity of the array. We obtained an energy resolutions between 2.4 and 2.6 eV (FWHM) at 5.9 keV, measured in a single-pixel mode at AC bias frequencies ranging from 1 to 5 MHz, with a frequency domain multiplexing (FDM) readout system, which is developed at SRON/VTT. We also present the detector energy resolution at X-ray with different photon energies generated by a modulated external X-ray source from 1.45 keV up to 8.9 keV. Multiplexing readout across several pixels has also been performed to evaluate the impact of the thermal crosstalk to the instrument's energy resolution budget requirement. This value results in a derived requirement, for the first neighbour, that is less than 1 $\;\times\; 10^{-3}$ when considering the ratio between the amplitude of the crosstalk signal to an X-ray pulse (for example at 5.9 keV).

We are developing a kilo-pixels Ti/Au TES array as a backup option for Athena X-IFU. Here we report on single-pixel performance of a 32$\times$32 array operated in a Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) readout system, with bias frequencies in the range 1-5 MHz. We have tested the pixels response at several photon energies, by means of a $^{55}$Fe radioactive source (emitting Mn-K$\alpha$ at 5.9 keV) and a Modulated X-ray Source (MXS, providing Cr-K$\alpha$ at 5.4 keV and Cu-K$\alpha$ at 8.0 keV). First, we report the procedure used to perform the detector energy scale calibration, usually achieving a calibration accuracy better than $\sim$ 0.5 eV in the 5.4 - 8.9 keV energy range. Then, we present the measured energy resolution at the different energies (best single pixel performance: $\Delta$E$_{FWHM}$ = 2.40 $\pm$ 0.09 eV @ 5.4 keV; 2.53 $\pm$ 0.10 eV @ 5.9 keV; 2.78 $\pm$ 0.16 eV @ 8.0 keV), investigating also the performance dependency from the pixel bias frequency and the count rate. Thanks to long background measurements ($\sim$ 1 day), we finally detected also the Al-K$\alpha$ line at 1.5 keV, generated by fluorescence inside the experimental setup. We analyzed this line to obtain a first assessment of the single-pixel performance also at low energy ($\Delta$E$_{FWHM}$ = 1.91 eV $\pm$ 0.21 eV @ 1.5 keV), and to evaluate the linearity of the detector response in a large energy band (1.5 - 8.9 keV)., Comment: Accepted for publication in IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity for ASC2020 special issue

We are developing Frequency Domain Multiplexing (FDM) read-out of Transition-Edge Sensors (TESs) for the X-ray Integral Field Unit (X-IFU) on board of the future European X-Ray observatory Athena. The X-IFU Focal-Plane Assembly consists of a $sim$ 3000-pixel array, read out by SQUID-based FDM. The multiplexing readout scheme is a critical technology for the X-IFU instrument because of the cooling and electronic power limits for the satellite. In this contribution, we report on the development of FDM readout technology and on the performance of TESs array under an AC bias at MHz frequencies.

The X-ray Integral Field Unit (X-IFU) is an imaging microcalorimeter being developed for ESA's Athena X-ray observatory to providing high spectral resolution imaging between 0.2-12 keV, with moderate count-rate capability and a large field-of-view. The X-IFU focal plane assembly (FPA) will contain the instrument's large-format transition edge sensor (TES) microcalorimeter array and its superconducting readout electronics, plus a second TES detector, located behind the main sensor array, is used to detect high-energy cosmic rays and secondary particles passing through the sensor array and enable the rejection of false events that they generate in the sensor array's event list. A Kevlar thermal suspension is used to isolate the detectors at 55 mK from the 2 K environment of the X-IFU instrument cryostat's cold stage, while three layers of shielding are used to allow the detector's to achieve their low-noise performance in the expected on-ground and in-flight electromagnetic and microvibration environment. This paper will describe the preliminary design concept of the X-IFU focal plane assembly and its critical technology building blocks.

SPEX (Spectropolarimeter for Planetary EXploration) is an innovative, compact remotesensing instrument for measuring and characterizing aerosols in the atmosphere. The shoebox size instrument is capable of accurate full linear spectropolarimetry without moving parts or liquid crystals. High precision polarimetry is performed through encoding the degree and angle of linear polarization of the incoming light in a sinusoidal modulation of the spectrum. Measuring this intensity spectrum thus provides the spectral dependence of the degree and angle of linear polarization. Polarimetry has proven to be an excellent tool to study microphysical properties of atmospheric particles. Such information is essential to better understand the weather and climate of a planet. Although SPEX can be used to study any planetary atmosphere, including the Earth's, the current design of SPEX is tailored to study Martian dust and clouds from an orbiting platform. SPEX’ 9 entrance pupils can simultaneously measure intensity spectra from 0.4 to 0.8 microns, in different directions along the flight direction (including two limb viewing directions). This way, the scattering phase functions of dust and cloud particles within a ground pixel are sampled while flying over it. SPEX can provide synergy with instruments on rovers and landers, as it provides an overview of spatial and temporal variations of the Martian atmosphere.

The Tropospheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) on-board the Sentinel-5 Precursor satellite is an Earth-observing spectrometer with bands in the ultraviolet, visible, near infrared and short-wave infrared (SWIR). It provides daily global coverage of atmospheric trace gases relevant for tropospheric air quality and climate research. Three new techniques will be presented that are unique for the TROPOMI-SWIR spectrometer. The retrieval of methane and CO columns from the data of the SWIR band requires for each detector pixel an accurate instrument spectral response function (ISRF), i.e. the normalized signal as a function of wavelength. A new determination method for Earth-observing instruments has been used in the on-ground calibration, based on measurements with a SWIR optical parametric oscillator (OPO) that was scanned over the whole TROPOMI-SWIR spectral range. The calibration algorithm derives the ISRF without needing the absolute wavelength during the measurement. The same OPO has also been used to determine the two-dimensional stray-light distribution for each SWIR pixel with a dynamic range of 7 orders. This was achieved by combining measurements at several exposure times and taking saturation into account. The correction algorithm and data are designed to remove the mean stray-light distribution and a reflection that moves relative to the direct image, within the strict constraints of the available time for the L01b processing. A third new technique is an alternative calibration of the SWIR absolute radiance and irradiance using a black body at the temperature of melting silver. Unlike a standard FEL lamp, this source does not have to be calibrated itself, because the temperature is very stable and well known. Measurement methods, data analyses, correction algorithms and limitations of the new techniques will be presented.

Immersed gratings offer several advantages over conventional gratings: more compact spectrograph designs, and by using standard semiconductor industry techniques, higher diffraction-efficiency and lower stray-light can be achieved. We present the optical tests of the silicon immersed grating demonstrator for the Mid-infrared E-ELT Imager and Spectrograph, METIS. We detail the interferometric tests that were done to measure the wavefront-error and present the results of the throughput and stray-light measurements. We also elaborate on the challenges encountered and lessons learnt during the immersed grating demonstrator test campaign that helped us to improve the fabrication processes of the grating patterning on the wafer.

A Superconducting Integrated Receiver (SIR) was proposed more than 10 years ago and has since then been developed up to the point of practical applications. We have demonstrated for the first time the capabilities of the SIR technology for heterodyne spectroscopy both in the laboratory and at remote operation under harsh environmental conditions for atmospheric research. Within a SIR the main components needed for a superconducting heterodyne receiver such as an SIS-mixer with quasi-optical antenna, a Flux-Flow oscillator (FFO) as the local oscillator, and a harmonic mixer to phase-lock the FFO are integrated on a single chip. Light weight and low power consumption combined with broadband operation and nearly quantum limited sensitivity make the SIR a perfect candidate for future airborne and space-borne missions. The noise temperature of the SIR was measured to be as low as 85 K, with an intermediate frequency band of 4-8 GHz in double sideband operation; the spectral resolution is well below 1 MHz. The SIR was implemented in the three-channel balloon-borne instrument TELIS (TErahertz and submillimeter LImb Sounder) that detects spectral emission lines of stratospheric trace gases (like ClO and BrO). These gases even in small quantities can have a significant impact on the atmosphere because they speed up certain chemical processes, such as ozone depletion.

The performance of the SCIAMACHY detectors has been monitored since launch. Only minor degradation of the silicon-based UV–Vis detectors and the lattice-matched InGaAs NIR detector is observed. The degradation of the NIR extended-wavelength InGaAs detector arrays, however, which are used for the first time in a space-based remote sensing application, is unexpectedly large. The degradation of individual detector pixels is abrupt and mostly leads to excessively high (spread in) dark current. Evidence is presented that non-ionizing radiation due to trapped-protons leads to displacement damage to the InGaAs detector material. The current degradation rate leads to a loss of approximately 50 out of 1024 pixels per channel per year.

TELIS (Terahertz and submm Limb Sounder) is a cooperative European project to develop a three-channel heterodyne balloon-based spectrometer for measuring a variety of atmospheric constituents within the lower stratosphere. The 600-650GHz channel is based on a phase-locked Superconducting Integrated Receiver (SIR). SIR is the on-chip combination of a low-noise SIS mixer with quasioptical antenna, a superconducting Flux Flow Oscillator (FFO) acting as Local Oscillator (LO) and an SIS harmonic mixer (HM) for FFO phase locking. A number of new solutions was implemented in the new generation of SIR chips. To achieve the wide-band performance of the spectrometer, a side-feed twin-SIS mixer with 0.8 /spl mu/m/sup 2/ junctions integrated with a double-dipole (or double-slot) antenna is used. A Fourier transform spectrometer (FTS) test demonstrated a possibility to obtain the required instantaneous bandwidth for the SIS mixer. To ensure the autonomous operation of the phase-locked SIR on the balloon a number of approaches for the PLL SIR automatic control have been developed.

The TROPOMI Earth-observing instrument is the single payload on board ESA's Sentinel-5 Precursor mission. It is the successor of the Sciamachy instrument (ESA ENVISAT) and the OMI instrument (NASA EOS/Aura), and combines and improves the best of both instruments. TROPOMI copies the push broom observation geometry of OMI allowing for daily global coverage due to its instantaneous field of view of 108 degrees, or 2600 km swath on ground. From Sciamachy the 2305 - 2385 nm Short-Wave Infra-Red (SWIR) observational band is copied with which methane and carbon monoxide are observed. This paper reports on the development of the SWIR detector module and the detailed characterization of the 1000x256 SWIR Saturn detector array produced by Sofradir (F) as measured with the SRON-developed Front-End Electronics. The detailed characterization comprises not only the regular properties such as dark current, noise and photo-response, but also more complex characteristics including non-linearity and memory. Characterization of the detection module was performed for all operational parameters: detector temperature (135 - 145 K), bias voltage and integration time. Thanks to the detector-characterization program, the operational clocking of the detector could be optimized, resulting in significantly improved performance.

We have developed a novel diffraction grating based on lithographical techniques and anisotropic etching in silicon. The grating is designed for the short-wave-infrared channel of the TROPOMI imaging spectrometer that will be launched on ESA's Sentinel 5 Precursor mission to monitor trace gases in the earth atmosphere. Stringent requirements on both the imaging properties and the quality of the spectra translate to a high-tech grating. In our design the dispersion and resolution is increased with a factor 3.4 with respect to conventional gratings by using the grating in immersion, such that diffraction takes place inside the silicon grating material. By lithographic patterning and anisotropic etching of the mono-crystalline silicon we precisely control line spacing and blaze angle. The grating has a line spacing of 2.5 μm and is operated in sixth order. We show that an efficiency of 60% is reached on a 50 x 60 mm2 grating surface. We compare our test results with numerical calculations for grating efficiency for both polarizations and find good agreement. © 2010 Copyright SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering.

The balloon-borne instrument TELIS (TErahertz and submillimetre LImb Sounder) is a three-channel superconducting heterodyne spectrometer for atmospheric research use. It detects spectral emission lines of stratospheric trace gases that have their rotational transitions at THz frequencies. One of the channels is based on the superconducting integrated receiver (SIR) technology. We demonstrate for the first time the capabilities of the SIR technology for heterodyne spectroscopy in general, and atmospheric limb sounding in particular. We also show that the application of SIR technology is not limited to laboratory environments, but that it is well suited for remote operation under harsh environmental conditions. Within a SIR the main components needed for a superconducting heterodyne receiver such as a superconductor–insulator–superconductor (SIS) mixer with a quasi-optical antenna, a flux-flow oscillator (FFO) as the local oscillator, and a harmonic mixer to phase lock the FFO are integrated on a single chip. Light weight and low power consumption combined with broadband operation and nearly quantum limited sensitivity make the SIR a perfect candidate for use in future airborne and space-borne missions. The noise temperature of the SIR was measured to be as low as 120 K, with an intermediate frequency band of 4–8 GHz in double-sideband operation. The spectral resolution is well below 1 MHz, confirmed by our measurements. Remote control of the SIR under flight conditions has been demonstrated in a successful balloon flight in Kiruna, Sweden. The sensor and instrument design are presented, as well as the preliminary science results from the first flight. (Some figures in this article are in colour only in the electronic version)

We present the flight configuration and performance of the superconducting integrated receiver (SIR) channel on the TELIS instrument (terahertz and submm limb sounder). The SIR is an on-chip combination of a low-noise SIS mixer with a quasioptical antenna, a superconducting Flux Flow Oscillator (FFO) acting as Local Oscillator (LO) and an SIS harmonic mixer (HM) for FFO phase locking. The SIR has been assembled, fully integrated into the system and thoroughly tested in preparation for the flight campaign in May 2008 (Teresina, Brazil).

SPEX (Spectropolarimeter for Planetary EXploration) is an innovative, compact remote-sensing instrument for detecting and characterizing aerosols. With its 1-liter volume it is capable of full linear spectropolarimetry, without moving parts. High precision polarimetry is performed through encoding the degree and angle of linear polarization of the incoming light in a sinusoidal modulation of the intensity spectrum. This is achieved by using an achromatic quarter-wave retarder, an athermal multiple-order retarder and a polarizing beamsplitter behind each entrance pupil. Measuring a single intensity spectrum thus provides the spectral dependence of the degree and angle of linear polarization. Polarimetry has proven to be an excellent tool to study microphysical properties (size, shape, composition) of atmospheric particles. Such information is essential to better understand the weather and climate of a planet. Although SPEX can be used to study any planetary atmosphere, including the Earth's, the current design of SPEX is tailored to study Martian dust and ice clouds from an orbiting platform: a compact module with 9 entrance pupils to simultaneously measure intensity spectra from 350 to 800 nm, in different directions along the flight direction (including two limb viewing directions). This way, both the intensity and polarization scattering phase functions of dust and cloud particles within a ground pixel are sampled while flying over it. In the absence of significant amounts of dust and clouds, the surface properties can be studied. SPEX provides synergy with instruments on rovers and landers, as it provides a global view of spatial and temporal variations of the planet.

TELIS (TErahertz and submm LImb Sounder) is a three-channel balloon-borne heterodyne spectrometer for atmospheric research. The observational techniques of TELIS can be compared to the presently flying MLS instrument on board NASA's EOS-Aura satellite, but TELIS is built with a new generation of cryogenic heterodyne detectors and novel compact systems suitable for integration into the confined space of a balloon borne cryostat. TELIS will fly on the MIPAS-B2 gondola. The two instruments together will yield the most complete set of stratospheric constituents, measured so far. TELIS is a cooperation between the European institutes DLR (PI-institute), RAL and SRON. First flight foreseen in the spring of 2008 from Teresina, Brasil. The three TELIS receivers provide simultaneous vertical profile measurement of a range of molecules. The 500 GHz channel is developed by RAL and will produce vertical profiles of BrO, ClO, O 3 and N 2 O. The 1.8 THz channel is developed by DLR and will mainly target the OH radical, and will also measure HO 2 , HCl, NO, NO 2 , O 3 , H 2 O, O 2 and HOCl. Finally the 480 - 650 GHz channel is developed by SRON and IREE and will measure profiles of ClO, BrO, O 3 , HCl, HOCl, H 2 O and its 3 isotopomers, H 2 O 2 , NO, N 2 O, HNO 3 , CH 3 Cl and HCN. In this paper, the science and technology of TELIS will be discussed with emphasis on the channel developed by SRON. It contains a Superconducting Integrated Receiver (SIR), which combines on a 4x4 mm 2 chip the low-noise SIS mixer and its quasioptical antenna, a superconducting phase-locked Flux Flow Oscillator (FFO) acting as Local Oscillator (LO) and a SIS harmonic mixer (HM) for FFO phase locking. The latest results from the pre-flight test and integration campaigns will be presented.

We present the flight configuration and performance of the superconducting integrated receiver (SIR) channel on the TELIS instrument (terahertz and submm limb sounder). The SIR is an on-chip combination of a low-noise SIS mixer with a quasioptical antenna, a superconducting flux flow oscillator (FFO) acting as local oscillator (LO) and an SIS harmonic mixer (HM) for FFO phase locking. The SIR has been assembled, fully integrated into the system and is currently being thoroughly tested in preparation for the flight campaign in October 2007 (Teresina, Brazil).

In this report an overview of the results on the development of a single-chip superconducting integrated receiver for the Terahertz Limb Sounder (TELIS) balloon project intended to measure a variety of stratosphere trace gases is presented. The Superconducting Integrated Receiver (SIR) comprises in one chip a planar antenna integrated with a superconductor-insulator-superconductor (SIS) mixer, a superconducting Flux Flow Oscillator (FFO) acting as Local Oscillator (LO) and a second SIS harmonic mixer (HM) for FFO phase locking. As a result of the FFO design optimization a free-running linewidth between 9 and 1.5 MHz has been measured in the frequency range 500-710 GHz resulting in phase-locking of 35 to 95% of the FFO power correspondingly. A new generation of the SIR devices with improved FFO performance and optimized interface between FFO and SIS/HM has been developed and comprehensively tested. As a result all required TELIS parameters were demonstrated., Phase-locked FFO operation over entire SIR channel frequency range has been realized, spectral resolution below 1 MHz has been confirmed by gas cell and CW signal measurements. An uncorrected double side band (DSB) noise temperature below 250 K has been measured with the phase-locked FFO. The intermediate frequency bandwidth 4-8 GHz; has been realized. To ensure remote operation of the phase-locked SIR several procedures for its automatic computer control have been developed and tested.

SFINX (SRON's Fabry-perot INterferometer eXperiment) consists of a 65 - 90 micrometer wavelength spectrometer based on a Fabry-Perot interferometer, and is equipped with both a conventional Ge:Ga photon detector operating at 4 K, and a novel high-temperature superconductor (HTS) bolometer detector operating at 87 K. The spectral resolution is about 8000, or 0.015 cm-1, comparable with the width of the thermal emission lines of the stratospheric species under study. Target molecules are OH, HCl, HO2, and possibly more. The SFINX instrument now under development will fly as a piggy-back instrument on a stratospheric balloon together with the MIPAS-B2 instrument of IMK/FZK (Karlsruhe, Germany), and can be regarded as a proof of concept for a satellite application. Because of its low satellite resource demands, for a satellite application a SFINX like instrument has great advantages with respect to Fourier transform spectrometers or heterodyne receivers. In particular, the HTS bolometer detector can be cooled by mechanical coolers which are presently available in space- qualified versions, thereby avoiding the use of liquid cryogen.© (1997) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

SCIAMACHY has been selected for the ESA environmental satellite ENVISAT with the objective to carry out atmospheric research in the UV, VIS, and IR spectral range. The most innovative parts of the instrument are the low- noise InGaAs semiconductor focal plane arrays covering the 1.0-2.4 micrometers wavelength range. For the first time InGaAs focal plane arrays with an extended wavelength range have become space qualified. In this paper theory and measurement of the dark current and noise behavior of these detectors is presented. Each InGaAs focal plane array consists of a 1024 pixel linear photo-detecting sliver and two 512 pixel multiplexing read-out chips. Each multiplexer contains 512 individual charge transimpedance amplifier and correlated double sampling circuits. A cylindrical lens, integrated in the detector housing, focuses the light on detector in the cross-dispersion direction. The InGaAs composition of the detectors is tuned to match the required wavelength range. Measurements have been performed of the dark current and noise as function of temperature and bias voltage in order to relate their performance to theory presented in this paper. InGaAs detectors sensitive to 2400 nm wavelength achieve dark current levels as low as 20-100 fA per detector pixel area of 1.25 (DOT) 10 -4 cm 2 at an operating temperature of 150 K and a bias voltage of 2 mV. Lower temperatures further reduce the dark current but also decrease the quantum efficiency at long wavelengths, yielding no net gain in performance. The development programme of these SCIAMACHY detectors has been carried out by Epitaxx Inc., for and in cooperation with the Space Research Organization Netherlands.