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Many initial studies related to identification of the boundaries and structural components, nuclei, tracts and interconnections of the hypothalamus; this continues. Early interest also focused on hypothalamic control of somatic activities and autonomic nervous system functions. During the present century chiefly, interest has developed in the hypothalamus and control of water balance, thirst, water retention and loss (diabetes insipidus and polydipsia). Its role in control of metabolism, body weight (obesity), and the regulation of body temperature has attracted the attention of physiologists for many years. Others have studied hypothalamic regulation of sex and reproductive phenomena. The hypothalamus is now attracting much attention because of its production of neuroendocrine secretions and role in control of the endocrine system. Physiologists realized very early that the hypothalamus is involved in emotional expression, in reaction to stress and adaptive adjustments. Its involvement in disease states and resistance thereto and in determining the nature of behavior has now been recognized as a matter of great importance. The origins of all these interests are reviewed.

It was almost a half century ago that I last attended an International Congress in Moscow and Leningrad--the IUPS Congress of 1935. My wife and I traveled far and saw the majesty of this land and its peoples. Here I met the great Pavlov and heard him present his thoughts concerning the conditioning of behavior. Cannon presented his concepts of transmitters and receptors. There were many other famous physiologists present, A. V. Hill and Lord Adrian; Kato of Japan demonstrated single nerve fiber studies. Someone talked of conditioned diuresis; I read a paper on hypothalamic control of the hypophysis. That was the dawn of neuroendocrinology, studies of hypothalamic function, sensory receptors, and the transmitter-receptor era. It was, like now, a time of great scientific endeavor, but there were clouds in the sky--Stalin and Hitler were coming to power, but the U.S.S.R. and America were friends, and in science it is still so. I wonder what some young man here will be able to report 50 years from now.