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This study aimed to evaluate the potential of a salt marsh plant and its rhizosphere microorganisms for the removal of two pharmaceutical compounds, bezafibrate and paroxetine, from estuarine environment. Plants were exposed for 7 days to a simplified estuarine medium, elutriate solution with or without sediment, doped with bezafibrate or paroxetine. Tests were done in absence and presence of nutrients or copper. Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. Ex Steud, alone or with the sediment microbial communities, contributed for pharmaceuticals removal. In the presence of P. australis, for paroxetine a 65% removal was observed. Removal increased up to 90% when sediment was present. For bezafibrate, removals reached ca. 47% in P. australis presence, increasing to ca. 70% when nutrients were added to the medium, indicating a good nutritional state can contribute for a higher compound removal. When Cu was added, 75% removal for bezafibrate and 95% removal for paroxetine were observed indicating the metal might influence the removal of the pharmaceuticals. Overall, the plant and its rhizosediments and associated microorganisms showed potential for pharmaceuticals removal from estuaries, eventually degrading the selected compounds, a feature requiring more research. Results indicate that phytoremediation could be a viable option for eliminating/diminishing the environmental impact of pharmaceutical compounds in estuarine areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Autochthonous bioaugmentation for metal phytoremediation is still little explored, particularly its application to estuarine salt marshes, but results obtained so far are promising. Nevertheless, understanding the behaviour of the microbial communities in the process of bioaugmentation and their role in improving metal phytoremediation is very important to fully validate the application of this biological technology. This study aimed to characterize the bacterial community dynamic associated with the application of autochthonous bioaugmentation in an experimentation which showed that Phragmites australis rhizosphere microorganisms could increase this salt marsh plant potential to phytoremediate Cu contaminated sediments. Bacterial communities present in the autochthonous microbial consortium resistant to Cu added to the medium and in the sediment at the beginning and at the end of the experiment were characterized by ARISA. Complementarily, the consortium and the sediment used for its production were characterized by next generation sequencing using the pyrosequencing platform 454. The microbial consortium resistant to Cu obtained from non-vegetated sediment was dominated by the genus Lactococcus (46%), Raoultella (25%), Bacillus (12%) and Acinetobacter (11%), whereas the one obtained form rhizosediment was dominated by the genus Gluconacetobacter (77%), Bacillus (17%) and Dyella (3%). Results clearly showed that, after two months of experiment, Cu caused a shift in the bacterial community structure of sediments, an effect that was observed either with or without addition of the metal resistant microbial consortium . Therefore, bioaugmentation application improved the process of phytoremediation (metal translocation by the plant was increased) without inducing long term changes in the bacterial community structure of the sediments. So, phytoremediation combined with autochthonous bioaugmentation can be a suitable technology for the recovery of estuarine areas, contributing for an efficient risk management strategy of these coastal zones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the uptake of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) by a salt marsh plant, Phragmites australis , as well as AgNPs effects on rhizospheric microbial community, evaluating the implications for phytoremediation processes. Experiments were carried out with elutriate solution doped with Ag, either in ionic form or in NP form. Metal uptake was evaluated in plant tissues, elutriate solutions and sediments (by AAS) and microbial community was characterized in terms of bacterial community structure (evaluated by ARISA). Results showed Ag accumulation but only in plant belowground tissues and only in the absence of rhizosediment, the presence of sediment reducing Ag availability. But in plant roots Ag accumulation was higher when Ag was in NP form. Multivariate analysis of ARISA profiles showed significant effect of the absence/presence of Ag either in ionic or NP form on microbial community structure, although without significant differences among bacterial richness and diversity. Overall, P. australis can be useful for phytoremediation of medium contaminated with Ag, including with AgNPs. However, the presence of Ag in either forms affected the microbial community structure, which may cause disturbances in ecosystems function and compromise phytoremediation processes. Such considerations need to be address regarding environmental management strategies applied to the very important estuarine areas. Capsule The form in which the metal was added affected metal uptake by Phragmites australis and rhizosediment microbial community structure, which can affect phytoremediation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to investigate Cu oxide nanoparticles (CuO NP) effect on microbial communities associated with salt marsh plants ( Halimione portulacoides and Pragmites australis ) rhizosphere and its implications for phytoremediation processes. Experiments were conducted, under controlled conditions, over one week. Rhizosediment soaked in the respective elutriate (a simplified natural medium) with or without plants, was doped with CuO NP or with Cu in ionic form. Microbial community in rhizosediments was characterized in terms of abundance (by DAPI) and structure (by ARISA). Metal uptake by plants was evaluated by measuring Cu in plant tissues (by atomic absorption spectroscopy). Results revealed significant metal uptake but only in plant roots, which was significantly lower ( H. portulacoides ) or not significant ( P. australis ) when the metal was in NP form. Microbial community structure was significantly changed by the treatment (absence/presence of Cu, ionic Cu or CuO NP) as showed by multivariate analysis of ARISA profiles and confirmed by analysis of similarities (Global test - one way ANOSIM). Moreover, in P. australis rhizosediments microbial abundance, bacterial richness and diversity indexes were significantly affected (increased or decreased) due to metal presence whereas in H. portulacoides rhizosediment microbial abundance showed a significant decrease, particularly when the metal was in NP form. Accordingly, Cu presence affected the response of the rhizosphere microbial community and in some cases that response was significantly different when Cu was in NP form. The response of the microbial communities to Cu NP might also contribute to the lower metal accumulation by plants when the metal was in this form. So, Cu NP may cause disturbances in ecosystems functions, ultimately affecting phytoremediation processes. These facts should be considered regarding the use of appropriate salt marshes plants to remediate moderately impacted areas such as estuaries, where NPs can be found. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increased use of metallic nanoparticles (NPs) raises the probability of finding NPs in the environment. A lot of information exists already regarding interactions between plants and metals, but information regarding interactions between metallic NPs and plants, including salt marsh plants, is still lacking. This work aimed to study interactions between CuO NPs and the salt marsh plants Halimione portulacoides and Phragmites australis . In addition, the potential of these plants for phytoremediation of Cu NPs was evaluated. Plants were exposed for 8 days to sediment elutriate solution doped either with CuO or with ionic Cu. Afterwards, total metal concentrations were determined in plant tissues. Both plants accumulated Cu in their roots, but this accumulation was 4 to 10 times lower when the metal was added in NP form. For P. australis , metal translocation occurred when the metal was added either in ionic or in NP form, but for H. portulacoides no metal translocation was observed when NPs were added to the medium. Therefore, interactions between plants and NPs differ with the plant species. These facts should be taken in consideration when applying these plants for phytoremediation of contaminated sediments in estuaries, as the environmental management of these very important ecological areas can be affected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microbial assisted phytoremediation is a promising, though yet poorly explored, new remediation technique. The aim of this study was to develop autochthonous microbial consortia resistant to cadmium that could enhance phytoremediation of salt-marsh sediments contaminated with this metal. The microbial consortia were selectively enriched from rhizosediments colonized by Juncus maritimus and Phragmites australis. The obtained consortia presented similar microbial abundance but a fairly different community structure, showing that the microbial community was a function of the sediment from which the consortia were enriched. The effect of the bioaugmentation with the developed consortia on cadmium uptake, and the microbial community structure associated to the different sediments were assessed using a microcosm experiment. Our results showed that the addition of the cadmium resistant microbial consortia increased J. maritimus metal phytostabilization capacity. On the other hand, in P. australis, microbial consortia amendment promoted metal phytoextraction. The addition of the consortia did not alter the bacterial structure present in the sediments at the end of the experiments. This study provides new evidences that the development of autochthonous microbial consortia for enhanced phytoremediation of salt-marsh sediments contaminated with cadmium might be a simple, efficient, and environmental friendly remediation procedure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To assess the possible effect that surfactants commonly found in the aquatic environment may have on the remediation potential of the salt marsh plant Halimione portulacoides, a non-ionic (Triton X-100) and an anionic (sodium dodecyl sulfate, SDS) surfactants were used. Experiments were carried out in the laboratory, either in hydroponics (sediment elutriate) or in sediment soaked in elutriate, using sediment and water from an estuarine salt marsh (Cávado River, NW Portugal). Groups of H. portulacoides (grown in a greenhouse) were exposed for 6d to media with 0.16mM added Cu(II) in the absence and in the presence of each one of the two selected surfactants, at concentrations lower than the respective micellar critical concentration. Cu was determined in solutions, sediments and in different plant tissues before and after experiments. Plant photosynthetic efficiency did not indicate deletory effects of the exposure to the added pollutants. The non-ionic surfactant Triton X-100 and, to a lesser extent, the anionic surfactant SDS too, favored Cu accumulation in the plant roots but not Cu translocation, indicating that surfactants may favor Cu adsorption to the roots (phytostabilization). On the other hand, both surfactants favored Cu solubility from the sediment. Therefore, the presence of surfactants, which are frequently found in estuarine areas, as a result of urban and industrial effluent discharges, may condition metal distribution in those environments. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Effect of polyethylene microspheres (mPE) on metal phytoremediation investigated. • P. australis accumulated identical amounts of Cu and Cd with or without PE MPs. • Polyethylene microbeads did not affect the plant capacity to phytoremediate Cu or Cd. The negative impacts of microplastics (MPs) in aquatic organisms have been stressed out, but investigation on MPs impacts in plants is scarce. This study aimed to investigate possible interferences of polyethylene microbeads (mPE) (intentionally produced MPs) in the phytoremediation of metals. For that, the plant Phragmites australis , a salt marsh plant with known capability for metals phytoremediation, was exposed for seven days to media contaminated with Cu or Cd and mPE. Elutriate solution, with or without sediment, was used to simulate interactions between estuarine water, plants and sediments. Metal contents on plants tissues and media were measured afterwards. Results showed that plants accumulated significant amounts (up to 70 times more than in non-exposed plants) of both metals in their belowground tissues (reaching ca. 1 mg/g of Cu and ca. 70 μg/g of Cd in roots). Metal accumulation occurred either in absence or in presence of sediments, denoting plants capability to phytoremediate Cu and Cd. No significant metal translocation to the upper ground tissues was observed, metals levels being identical to those of non-exposed plants. The accumulation of both metals in plants belowground tissues was identical in the presence and absence of mPE, indicating that mPE did not interfered with plants capacity to phytoremediate Cu or Cd contaminated medium. This study further our scientific understanding of MPs impacts in saltmarsh plants and on their phytoremediation potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons in colonized and un-colonized sediments by salt marsh plants Juncus maritimus and Phragmites australis collected in a temperate estuary was investigated during a 5-month greenhouse experiment. The efficiency of two bioremediation treatments namely biostimulation (BS) by the addition of nutrients, and bioaugmentation (BA) by addition of indigenous microorganisms was tested in comparison with hydrocarbon natural attenuation in un-colonized and with rhizoremediation in colonized sediments. Hydrocarbon degrading microorganisms and root biomass were assessed as well as hydrocarbon degradation levels. During the study, hydrocarbon degradation in un-colonized sediments was negligible regardless of treatments. Rhizoremediation proved to be an effective strategy for hydrocarbon removal, yielding high rates in most experiments. However, BS treatments showed a negative effect on the J. maritimus potential for hydrocarbon degradation by decreasing the root system development that lead to lower degradation rates. Although both plants and their associated microorganisms presented a potential for rhizoremediation of petroleum hydrocarbons in contaminated salt marsh sediments, results highlighted that nutrient requirements may be distinct among plant species, which should be accounted for when designing cleanup strategies. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Several salt marsh plant species have shown to be able to uptake and concentrate metals in their tissues, showing potential for metal phytoremediation. However, studies in controlled conditions, mimicking as much as possible the plants natural environment, are needed to confirm this potential. For the present study, Juncus maritimus and Phragmites australis were collected in an estuary together with the sediment surrounding their roots, put in vessels and maintained in greenhouses under estuarine tidal simulation. After 3 weeks of acclimation, vessels were spiked with two different cadmium concentrations. After 2 months, cadmium was assessed in plant tissues and sediments. Results indicate that both plant species were able to uptake and translocate cadmium into their tissues, contributing also to retain it in rhizosediments and thus reducing the available amount of metal in the environment. Metal was preferentially accumulated in belowground structures, in concentrations not directly proportional to the amount of cadmium present in the sediment. Although no visual toxicity signs were observed, some defence mechanisms were triggered as observed by the changes in carotenoids, lignin, total soluble phenolic compounds and thiolic compounds levels, this response differing between plant species. This work shows that these two salt marsh plants can contribute for the retention of cadmium in salt marshes being useful for the phytostabilization of this metal in estuarine environments. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The recovery of estuarine environments is in need. Phytoremediation could be a valid option to reduce pollution while preserving natural biodiversity. In this work, estuarine sediments colonized by Juncus maritimus or Phragmites australis were spiked with cadmium in the absence and in the presence of an autochthonous microbial consortium resistant to the metal. The aim of this study was to increase the potential for cadmium phytoremediation that these two halophyte plants have shown. Experiments were carried out in greenhouses with an automatic irrigation system that simulated estuarine tidal cycles. After 2 months, Cd concentration in P. australis stems increased up to 7 times when the rhizosphere was inoculated with the microbial consortium. So, P. australis phytoextraction potential was increased through autochthonous bioaugmentation. As for J. maritimus, up to 48% more Cd (total amount) was observed in its belowground tissues after being subjected to autochthonous bioaugmentation. Therefore, the phytostabilization potential of this plant was promoted. For both plants this increase in cadmium uptake did not cause significant signs of toxicity. Therefore, the addition of autochthonous microorganisms resistant to cadmium seems to be a valuable strategy to potentiate phytoremediation of this metal in saltmarshes, being useful for the recovery of moderately impacted estuaries. This will contribute for an effective management of these areas. Research on this topic regarding estuarine ecosystems, especially saltmarshes, is, to our knowledge, inexistent. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Salt marshes are important sinks for contaminants, namely metals that tend to accumulate around plant roots and could eventually be taken up in a process known as phytoremediation. On the other hand, microbial communities display important roles in the salt marsh ecosystems, such as recycling of nutrients and/or degradation of organic contaminants. Thus, plants can benefit from the microbial activity in the phytoremediation process. Nevertheless, above certain levels, metals are known to be toxic to microorganisms, fact that can eventually compromise their ecological functions. In this vein, the aim of present study was to investigate, in the laboratory, the effect of selected metals (Cd, Cu and Pb) on the microbial communities associated to the roots of two salt marsh plants. Sediments colonized by Juncus maritimus and Phragmites australis were collected in the River Lima estuary (NW Portugal), and spiked with each of the metals at three different Effects Range-Median (ERM) concentrations (1, 10×, 50×), being ERM the sediment quality guideline that indicates the concentration above which adverse biological effects may frequently occur. Spiked sediments were incubated with a nutritive saline solution, being left in the dark under constant agitation for 7 days. The results showed that, despite the initial sediments colonized by J. maritimus and P. australis displayed significant (p < 0.05) differences in terms of microbial community structure (evaluated by ARISA), they presented similar microbial abundances (estimated by DAPI). Also, in terms of microbial abundance, both sediments showed a similar response to metal addition, with a decrease in number of cells only observed for the higher addition of Cu. Nevertheless, both Cu and Pb, at intermediate metals levels promote a shift in the microbial community structure, with possibly effect on the ecological function of these microbial communities in salt marshes. These changes may affect plants phytoremediation potential and further work on this subject is in need. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]