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Ethnopharmacological Relevance: To investigate the uses of medicinal plants for management of malaria by the communities around Kakum National Park in southern Ghana., Materials and Methods: Data were obtained through questionnaire interviews with seven herbalists using standard ethnobotanical methods and voucher specimens where obtained of all the species used to treat malaria., Results: A total of 33 species in 21 plant families were identified as being used. Over 75% of the species of plants were used in combinations with one to eight other plant species for the management of malaria., Conclusion: The study has shown that multiple plants prescriptions are most commonly used for the management of malaria in the study area. This makes it very complex to standardise and monitor the uses of the plants let alone further our understanding of the active compounds in any one species., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Ethnopharmacological Relevance: Studies on traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), like those of other systems of traditional medicine (TM), are very variable in their quality, content and focus, resulting in issues around their acceptability to the global scientific community. In an attempt to address these issues, an European Union funded FP7 consortium, composed of both Chinese and European scientists and named "Good practice in traditional Chinese medicine" (GP-TCM), has devised a series of guidelines and technical notes to facilitate good practice in collecting, assessing and publishing TCM literature as well as highlighting the scope of information that should be in future publications on TMs. This paper summarises these guidelines, together with what has been learned through GP-TCM collaborations, focusing on some common problems and proposing solutions. The recommendations also provide a template for the evaluation of other types of traditional medicine such as Ayurveda, Kampo and Unani., Materials and Methods: GP-TCM provided a means by which experts in different areas relating to TCM were able to collaborate in forming a literature review good practice panel which operated through e-mail exchanges, teleconferences and focused discussions at annual meetings. The panel involved coordinators and representatives of each GP-TCM work package (WP) with the latter managing the testing and refining of such guidelines within the context of their respective WPs and providing feedback., Results: A Good Practice Handbook for Scientific Publications on TCM was drafted during the three years of the consortium, showing the value of such networks. A "deliverable - central questions - labour division" model had been established to guide the literature evaluation studies of each WP. The model investigated various scoring systems and their ability to provide consistent and reliable semi-quantitative assessments of the literature, notably in respect of the botanical ingredients involved and the scientific quality of the work described. This resulted in the compilation of (i) a robust scoring system and (ii) a set of minimum standards for publishing in the herbal medicines field, based on an analysis of the main problems identified in published TCM literature., Conclusion: Good quality, peer-reviewed literature is crucial in maintaining the integrity and the reputation of the herbal scientific community and promoting good research in TCM. These guidelines provide a clear starting point for this important endeavour. They also provide a platform for adaptation, as appropriate, to other systems of traditional medicine., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Omic techniques have become key tools in the development of systems biology. As the holistic approaches underlying the practice of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and new tendencies in Western medicine towards personalised medicine require in-depth knowledge of mechanisms of action and active compounds, the use of omic techniques is crucial for understanding and interpretation of TCM development, especially in view of its expansion in Western countries. In this short review, omic applications in TCM research are reviewed which has allowed some speculation regarding future perspectives for these approaches in TCM modernisation and standardisation. Guidelines for good practice for the application of omics in TCM research are also proposed., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Plectranthus is a large and widespread genus with a diversity of ethnobotanical uses. The genus is plagued with numerous nomenclatural disharmonies that make it difficult to collate accurate data on the uses. The aim of this review is to gather together all ethnobotanical information on Plectranthus and to map the data onto the most up-to-date phylogenetic classification in order to see if there are similar uses among related species and hence provide a framework for the prediction and exploration of new uses of species. The uses of 62 species of Plectranthus were mapped onto a current phylogeny based on DNA sequence data. The phylogeny reveals two major Clades, 1 and 2. The members of Clade 1 (corresponding to the formally recognized genus Coleus) were richer in number and diversity of uses than members of Clade 2 (comprising the remaining species of Plectranthus). The high incidence of synonymy can lead to problems in uncovering a species' ethnobotanical profile. About 30% of all citations of Plectranthus use a synonym and most of the synonyms are attributed to 10 of the most used species, 9 of which are in Clade 1. Members of the 'Coleus' Clade are the most studied group both taxonomically and economically. The higher incidence of study may be as a result of the higher diversity of uses and the fact that species in Clade 1, such as Plectranthus barbatus, Plectranthus amboinicus and Plectranthus mollis, are geographically more widespread than those in Clade 2. Plectranthus species in Clade 1 are frequently used as medicines and are used to treat a range of ailments, particularly digestive, skin, infective and respiratory problems. Plectranthus used as foods, flavours, fodder and materials are also mostly found in Clade 1. Monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, diterpenoids and phenolics have been reported in species of Plectranthus. The abietane diterpenoids are the most diverse of the diterpenoids isolated from species of Plectranthus. The labdane diterpenoid, forskolin, occurs in Plectranthus barbatus and could explain some of the traditional uses of this species. This review highlights the fact that not enough is known about the chemistry of other species of Plectranthus to explain their traditional uses.

Nomenclature of plants in pharmacology can be presented by pharmaceutical names or scientific names in the form of Linnaean binomials. In this paper, positive and negative aspects of both systems are discussed in the context of the scientific nomenclatural framework and the systems' practical applicability. The Uppsala Monitoring Centre (UMC) runs the WHO Programme for International Drug Monitoring and is responsible for the WHO Adverse Drug Reaction (ADR) database that currently contains 3.6 million records. In order for the UMC to monitor pharmacovigilance through ADRs to herbal medicine products the following nomenclatural criteria are important: (i) the name should indicate only one species of plant; (ii) the source for this name must be authoritative; (iii) the name should indicate which part of the plant is used. Based on these criteria, the UMC investigated four options: (i) adopt main names used in recognised (inter-) national pharmacopoeias or authoritative publications; (ii) adopt option 1, but cite the publication for all names in abbreviated form; (iii) three-part pharmaceutical names consisting of Latinised part name plus Latinised genus name, plus Latinised specific epithet; (iv) scientific binomial names, optionally with author and plant part used. The UMC has chosen the latter option and will at its adoption utilise the scientific botanical nomenclature as defined by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. This decision satisfies all criteria set by the UMC and renders the necessity of creating a new system or upgrading an old inconsistent system obsolete. The UMC has also issued an extensive synonymy checklist of vernacular, pharmaceutical and scientific names for the herbals in the WHO ADR database. We strongly recommend the adoption of scientific names to denote plant ingredients in medicine.

An ethnobotanical study was conducted in the Wechiau Community Hippopotamus Sanctuary area in Ghana, through interviews and quadrate studies, to investigate the range and abundance of species used in the treatment of malaria. Forty-one species belonging to 17 families were encountered during the study. Of the 17 families studied Leguminosae and Anacardiaceae predominated in terms of number of species used to treat malaria. Eight plant species namely, Afraegle paniculata (Rutaceae), Haematostaphis barteri (Anacardiaceae), Indigo era pulchra (Leguminosae), Monanthotaxis sp. (Annonaceae), Ozoroa insignis (Anacardiaceae), Strychnos innocua (Loganiaceae), Strychnos spinosa (Loganiaceae) and Xeroderris stuhlmannii (Leguminosae) have not previously been documented for the treatment of malaria in Ghana. The results are discussed and recommendations made for future research to support the conservation and sustainable harvesting of the species reported to have medicinal properties.

No-choice and binary-choice bioassays were used to test the effect of a range of plant-derived insecticides on the behaviour of larvae of the black blow fly Phormia regina (Meigen). Azadirachtin (100 and 10 ppm), pyrethrum extract (10 ppm) and the naphthoquinone BTG 505 (1000 ppm) acted as deterrents for P. regina larvae. The mortality of larvae was reduced in instances where they moved away from a treated diet. Larvae given a choice were heavier, when compared with larvae reared exclusively on diets containing either azadirachtin (100 or 10 ppm) or the naphthoquinones, BTG 504 (1000 ppm) or BTG 505 (1000 ppm). The deterrent effect of azadirachtin, pyrethrum and the naphthoquinone BTG 505 together with their larvicidal activity, could be utilized in prophylaxis against myiasis infections due to larvae of Phormia regina.

The antibacterial activity of extracts from species of plants used in the Chinese medicine, Zi Hua Di Ding (Viola yedoensis, V. prionantha, Corydalis bungeana and Gueldenstaedtia verna), was tested against Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas syringae using a bioautographic assay. The petroleum ether and ethyl acetate extracts of all four species of plants showed activity against both species of bacteria, whereas the methanol and aqueous methanol extracts were inactive. Three fractions from the petroleum ether extracts of V. yedoensis, V. prionantha and C. bungeana showed activity against B. subtilis at 6.25 microg/mL. Preliminary analysis of these active fractions indicates that they contain long chain carboxylic acids.