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A tobacco calmodulin-like protein, rgs-CaM, has been shown to interact with viruses in a variety of ways; it contributes to geminivirus infections but is also involved in primed immunity to the cucumber mosaic virus. Sequence similarity searches revealed several calmodulin-like proteins similar to rgs-CaM (rCML) in Arabidopsis and other Solanaceae plants, including potato (Solanum tuberosum). To analyze the functions of each rCML, mutations were introduced into potato rCMLs using the CRISPR/Cas9 system. Here, we describe our protocol of the CRISPR/Cas9-mediated targeted mutagenesis in stably transformed potato plants.

Primary infection of a plant with a pathogen that causes high accumulation of salicylic acid in the plant typically via a hypersensitive response confers enhanced resistance against secondary infection with a broad spectrum of pathogens, including viruses. This phenomenon is called systemic acquired resistance (SAR), which is a plant priming for adaption to repeated biotic stress. However, the molecular mechanisms of SAR-mediated enhanced inhibition, especially of virus infection, remain unclear. Here, we show that SAR against cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) in tobacco plants ( Nicotiana tabacum ) involves a calmodulin-like protein, rgs-CaM. We previously reported the antiviral function of rgs-CaM, which binds to and directs degradation of viral RNA silencing suppressors (RSSs), including CMV 2b, via autophagy. We found that rgs-CaM-mediated immunity is ineffective against CMV infection in normally growing tobacco plants but is activated as a result of SAR induction via salicylic acid signaling. We then analyzed the effect of overexpression of rgs-CaM on salicylic acid signaling. Overexpressed and ectopically expressed rgs-CaM induced defense reactions, including cell death, generation of reactive oxygen species, and salicylic acid signaling. Further analysis using a combination of the salicylic acid analogue benzo-(1,2,3)-thiadiazole-7-carbothioic acid S -methyl ester (BTH) and the Ca 2+ ionophore A23187 revealed that rgs-CaM functions as an immune receptor that induces salicylic acid signaling by simultaneously perceiving both viral RSS and Ca 2+ influx as infection cues, implying its autoactivation. Thus, secondary infection of SAR-induced tobacco plants with CMV seems to be effectively inhibited through 2b recognition and degradation by rgs-CaM, leading to reinforcement of antiviral RNA silencing and other salicylic acid-mediated antiviral responses. IMPORTANCE Even without an acquired immune system like that in vertebrates, plants show enhanced whole-plant resistance against secondary infection with pathogens; this so-called systemic acquired resistance (SAR) has been known for more than half a century and continues to be extensively studied. SAR-induced plants strongly and rapidly express a number of antibiotics and pathogenesis-related proteins targeted against secondary infection, which can account for enhanced resistance against bacterial and fungal pathogens but are not thought to control viral infection. This study showed that enhanced resistance against cucumber mosaic virus is caused by a tobacco calmodulin-like protein, rgs-CaM, which detects and counteracts the major viral virulence factor (RNA silencing suppressor) after SAR induction. rgs-CaM-mediated SAR illustrates the growth versus defense trade-off in plants, as it targets the major virulence factor only under specific biotic stress conditions, thus avoiding the cost of constitutive activation while reducing the damage from virus infection., (Copyright © 2017 American Society for Microbiology.)

Plants and animals can recognize the invasion of pathogens through their perception of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). Plant PRRs identified have been exclusively receptor-like kinases/proteins (RLK/Ps), and no RLK/P that can detect viruses has been identified to date. RNA silencing (RNA interference, RNAi) is regarded as an antiviral basal immunity because the majority of plant viruses has RNA as their genomes and encode RNA silencing suppressor (RSS) proteins to counterattack antiviral RNAi. Many RSSs were reported to bind to double-stranded RNAs (dsRNAs), which are regarded as viral PAMPs. We have recently identified a tobacco calmodulin (CaM)-like protein, rgs-CaM, as a PRR that binds to diverse viral RSSs through its affinity for the dsRNA-binding domains. Because rgs-CaM seems to target RSSs for autophagic degradation with self-sacrifice, the expression level of rgs-CaM is important for antiviral activity. Here, we found that the rgs-CaM expression was induced immediately (within 1 h) after wounding at a wound site on tobacco leaves. Since the invasion of plant viruses is usually associated with wounding, and several hours are required for viruses to replicate to a detectable level in invaded cells, the wound-induced expression of rgs-CaM seems to be linked to its antiviral function, which should be ready before the virus establishes infection. CaMs and CaM-like proteins usually transduce calcium signals through their binding to endogenous targets. Therefore, rgs-CaM is a unique CaM-like protein in terms of binding to exogenous targets and functioning as an antiviral PRR.

Clover yellow vein virus (ClYVV) causes lethal systemic necrosis in legumes, including broad bean (Vicia faba) and pea (Pisum sativum). To identify host genes involved in necrotic symptom expression after ClYVV infection, we screened cDNA fragments in which expression was changed in advance of necrotic symptom expression in broad bean (V. faba cv. Wase) using the differential display technique and secondarily with Northern blot analysis. Expression changes were confirmed in 20 genes, and the six that exhibited the most change were analyzed further. These six genes included a gene that encodes a putative nitrate-induced NOI protein (VfNOI), and another was homologous to an Arabidopsis gene that encodes a glycine- and proline-rich protein GPRP (VfGPRP). We recently reported that necrotic symptom development in ClYVV-infected pea is associated with expression of salicylic acid (SA)-dependent pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins and requires SA-dependent host responses. Interestingly, VfNOI and VfGPRP expression was correlated with that of the putative SA-dependent PR proteins in ClYVV-infected broad bean. However, broad bean infected with a recombinant ClYVV expressing the VfGPRP protein showed weaker symptoms and less viral multiplication than that infected with ClYVV expressing the GFP protein. These results imply that VfGPRP plays a role in defense against ClYVV rather than in necrotic symptom expression.

Tracking virus infection in plants is useful to assess plant susceptibility or resistance. The recombinant cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) expressing a 2b-fused green fluorescent protein (GFP, 25 kDa) gradually loses (within weeks) the GFP gene in plants. Here, we constructed CMV expressing a flavin-based small fluorescent protein (iLOV, 10 kDa). CMV-iLOV still retains iLOV after 28 dpi in upper leaves of inoculated Nicotiana benthamiana and allows long-term monitoring of its distribution in plants. Using CMV-iLOV, we showed that pot1, a recessive allele for resistance to potyviruses, does not confer CMV resistance in tomato. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

RNA silencing (RNAI) induced by virus-derived double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), which is in a sense regarded as a pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) of viruses, is a general plant defense mechanism. To counteract this defense, plant viruses express RNA silencing suppressors (RSSs), many of which bind to dsRNA and attenuate RNAi. We showed that the tobacco calmodulin-like protein, rgs-CaM, counterattacked viral RSSs by binding to their dsRNA-binding domains and sequestering them from inhibiting RNAi. Autophagy-like protein degradation seemed to operate to degrade RSSs with the sacrifice of rgs-CaM. These RSSs could thus be regarded as secondary viral PAMPs. This study uncovered a unique defense system in which an rgs-CaM-mediated countermeasure against viral RSSs enhanced host antiviral RNAi in tobacco. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]