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Species of Clavaria (Clavariaceae, Agaricales) collected from China were studied using morphological and molecular methods. Two species, C. griseolilacina and C. sinensis were described as new species; both possess branched and pale purple-tinged fruit bodies. However, the former possess a few branched, while the latter is profusely branched. The phylogenetic analysis based on the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences confirmed the distinctions between these two new species and their close relationships with C. rubicundula and C. fumosa in the genus. An evolutionary tendency in genus Clavaria was discussed. Additionally, morphological features of the two new species were described in detail and were illustrated with line drawings and photographs. Holotypes of the new species are deposited in the Mycological Herbarium of Hunan Normal University (MHHNU). The ITS sequences generated in this study were deposited in GenBank. A key is provided for the known Clavaria species in China.

Climate change may alter mycorrhizal communities, which impact ecosystem characteristics such as carbon sequestration processes. These impacts occur at a greater magnitude in Arctic ecosystems, where the climate is warming faster than in lower latitudes. Cassiope tetragona (L.) D. Don is an Arctic plant species in the Ericaceae family with a circumpolar range. C. tetragona has been reported to form ericoid mycorrhizal (ErM) as well as ectomycorrhizal (ECM) symbioses. In this study, the fungal taxa present within roots of C. tetragona plants collected from Svalbard were investigated using DNA metabarcoding. In light of ongoing climate change in the Arctic, the effects of artificial warming by open-top chambers (OTCs) on the fungal root community of C. tetragona were evaluated. We detected only a weak effect of warming by OTCs on the root-associated fungal communities that was masked by the spatial variation between sampling sites. The root fungal community of C. tetragona was dominated by fungal groups in the Basidiomycota traditionally classified as either saprotrophic or ECM symbionts, including the orders Sebacinales and Agaricales and the genera Clavaria, Cortinarius, and Mycena. Only a minor proportion of the operational taxonomic units (OTUs) could be annotated as ErM-forming fungi. This indicates that C. tetragona may be forming mycorrhizal symbioses with typically ECM-forming fungi, although no characteristic ECM root tips were observed. Previous studies have indicated that some saprophytic fungi may also be involved in biotrophic associations, but whether the saprotrophic fungi in the roots of C. tetragona are involved in biotrophic associations remains unclear. The need for more experimental and microscopy-based studies to reveal the nature of the fungal associations in C. tetragona roots is emphasized.

Increasing numbers of fungal species have been described recently from semi-natural grassland soils, raising the conservation interest of these species-rich habitats. Here, we characterize the soil fungal community inhabiting six fairy rings in a montane grassland of the Eastern Pre-Pyrenees through fungal DNA metabarcoding of ITS2 amplicons. Distinct soil fungal communities were observed outside of the rings compared to inside the ring areas. Higher abundances of fungi belonging to Pleosporales and Eurotiales were observed outside fairy rings, whereas zones belonging to the fairy rings showed higher abundances of Agaricales. Fungal diversity was higher inside the rings than outside. We found diverse saprotrophic or putative saprotrophic taxa associated with the studied rings, including the genera Clavaria, Psathyrella, Tricholoma, Amanita and Lycoperdon. These findings highlight the importance of particular keystone taxa in the structuring of fungal communities and their effect on the overall grassland fungal community., This study was developed within the projects BIOGEI (CGL 2013-49142-C2-1-R) and CAPAS (CGL 2010-22378-C03-01) funded by the Spanish Science Foundation (FECYT) jointly with the FPU programme (FPU12/05849) run by the Spanish Ministry of Education. Funding from the project IMAGINE (CGL 2017-85490-R) allowed the completion of this work.

We present new records of noteworthy aphyllophoroid fungi, mainly polypores and corticioids in Finland. The following 19 rare or infrequently collected species are presented with notes on their substrates: Amylocorticium subsulphureum, Antrodiella parasitica, Ceraceomyces sulphurinus, Clavaria atroumbrina, Clavaria rosea, Gloeophyllum carbonarium, Hyphodontia flavipora, Junghuhnia fimbriatella, Lindtneria chordulata, Odonticium septocystidia, Peniophorella guttulifera, Perenniporia tenuis, Postia immitis, Repetobasidium vile, Resinicium pinicola, Sidera vulgaris, Tomentella coerulea, Trechispora laevis and Xylodon pruni. We also list 41 aphyllophoroid fungi as new to some sections of the boreal vegetation zone in Finland.

Collections of three fungal species described from Germany by Alexander von Humboldt have been rediscovered in the mycological herbarium at Kew. These collections are considered lectotypes of Boletus patella, B. venosus, and Clavaria aurea and are assigned to Postia stiptica, Physisporinus vitreus, and Calocera viscosa respectively. Humboldt’s Central & South American collections are also at Kew and a list of specimens is appended. Based on the rediscovered type collection, Favolus humboldtii is considered a synonym of Polyporus tenuiculus.

Hallucinogenic Mushrooms in Mexico: An Overview.Psilocybe, with 53 known hallucinogenic species in Mexico, is the most important and diverse group of sacred mushrooms used by Mexican indigenous cultures. Psilocybe caerulescens, known by the present-day Nahuatl Indians as teotlaquilnanacatl, is hypothesized to be the ceremonially-used teonanacatl mushroom cited by Sahagun in the 16th century, the true identity of which has remained obscure for centuries. Correcting a widely disseminated error derived from early published information on Mexican hallucinogenic mushrooms, emphasis is placed on the fact that Panaeolus species have never been used traditionally in Mexico. Reports of the use of species of Amanita, Clavaria, Conocybe, Cordyceps, Dictyophora, Elaphomyces, Gomphus, Lycoperdon, Psathyrella, and Stropharia as sacred or narcotic mushrooms are discussed. A brief history of the discovery of hallucinogenic mushrooms in Mexico is presented, as well as notes on their taxonomy, distribution, and traditional use in Mexico.

At the 2005 grassland fungi workshop in Wales, Debbie Evans brought along a specimen of a yellow clavarioid fungus which she had identified as Clavaria amoenoides Corner et al., a species not previously known to be British but listed in Nordic Macromycetes (Hansen & Knudsen, 1997) as occurring in Scandinavia. An additional collection was made during the workshop itself and further specimens were collected at the 2006 upland foray in Wales, in a pasture next to the foray centre. It seems we now have three yellow or yellowish Clavaria species in the British Isles, all of them unbranched (tubular or clubshaped) and distinctly pale or dull compared with the much commoner and brighter yellow Clavulinopsis species. As with the black and brown Clavaria species (Roberts, 2007), the literature on these species is scattered, so a brief key and descriptions follow. ‘Q’ is spore length divided by breadth.

Fifteen species of clavarioid Basidiomycetes belonging to the Cantharellales, Gomphales, and Lachnocladiales are described from Korup National Park, South West Province, Cameroon. Aphelaria korupensis, A. subglobispora, Clavaria afrolutea, Clavulina coffeoflava, Pterula anomala, P crassispora, and R parvispora are described as new. The new combination Clavulina ramosior is proposed, based on C. cavipes var. ramosior. Gomphus clavatus var. parvisporus is considered a synonym of G. brunneus.

Light and electron microscopic investigations of the roots of Rhododendron and other ericaceous plants growing in the vicinity of Clavaria fruiting structures showed a fungal infection consistently associated with the epidermal and cortical cells of the "hair roots." Uninfected hair roots consisted of an epidermis and a one cell thick cortical layer surrounding the stele. Secondary growth in the stele and formation of a cork layer by division of the pericycle caused the cortex and epidermis to slough as the root matured. The structure of the infected hair roots was similar except for the presence of fungus in epidermal and cortical cells. As judged by the appearance of septa, at least two fungi were involved, one with dolipore septa that formed hyphal coils in the infected cells, and one with septa associated with Woronin bodies that occurred as single hyphal strands. Hyphae were found penetrating the cells from the exterior of the root and also passing from cell to cell. No correlation between fungal infection and the phenolic content of the cells could be made. Dissolution of both the fungal and host cytoplasm appeared to occur as the cells were sloughed. It appears that the fungus–root relationship is complex and is limited in duration to a short period of time during the development of the hair roots.

Antisera were prepared from fruiting structures of a Clavaria sp. found growing in the vicinity of Rhododendron plants and from mycelium of Pezizella ericae grown in culture. The antisera were used for the detection and differentiation of fungi in thin sections of roots of Rhododendron by an indirect immunocytochemical procedure using colloidal gold-labelled goat antirabbit immunoglobin G. Three distinct fungal types could be detected in roots: hyphae that reacted only with the Clavaria antiserum; hyphae that reacted only with the Pezizella antiserum; and hyphae that did not react with either antiserum.

Summary A close physiological relationship between some ericaceous plants, Rhododendron sp. and Pieris japonica, and a member of the genus Clavaria is indicated by radioisotope translocation studies. [14C] photosynthate from host leaves was detected in Clavaria fruiting bodies and 25P applied to Clavaria fruiting bodies was detected in plant roots. Possible transfer mechanisms, including that of a mycorrhizal association, are discussed.

Clavaria flavescens, C. flava, C. aurea, C. pallida, and C. rubella, species originally described by J. C. Schaeffer and currently placed in Ramaria, are reexamined and redescribed in modern terms following studies of original literature and specimens from type localities. OVER THE YEARS, species described in early, eventually obscure literature are often invested with characters not originally included, or their descriptions changed to fit a similar local organism. In many cases, these names come to represent a composite "taxon," and it becomes necessary to redefine the name more closely to allow more accurate identification of the taxon truly described. In Ramaria, for example, two names in extremely common usage throughout the world are R. (Clavaria) flava and R. (Clavaria) aurca. The impression is created that these "two" taxa are cosmopolitan, found either in typical or variant form on every continent. In fact, even in Europe where the names originated, contradictory concepts of their identities abound, including several apparently undescribed or moribund taxa, viz. C. flava Schaeffer vs. C. flava sensu Bresadola. Of the oldest and most popular names are those coined by Jacob Christian Schaeffer. Schaeffer's home and collecting grounds were in Bavaria, in and near Regensburg, and it is essential to sample the fungus flora of that region to become acquainted with the taxa he described. In some instances (i.e., Clavaria rufescens) I am not yet convinced that modern circumscriptions of Schaeffer's names are possible, although convincing clues are becoming available. In other cases, however, I feel that modern identities are possible, as reported here. Schaeffer authored two major works (Schaeffer 1759, 1762, 1763, 1774a, b) the second of which was composed of four volumes. The date of appearance of Schaeffer's last volume is uncertain. Although the title page reads 1800, a number of literature citations to Schaeffer's names exist before that date, convincing me that the date following Schaeffer's preface, 1774, is correct, as Donk (personal communication) regarded it. Several considerations enter into a search for identities for such classic species. First, when ac1 Received for publication 23 July 1973. This project was supported in part by National Science Foundation Grant GB 32104 and represents contribution No. 416 from the Botanical Laboratories, University of Tennessee. curate color is essential to identification, as in Ramaria, examination of one copy of such handcolored illustrations is not enough. Accordingly, I have examined Schaeffer's volumes at K, NCU, NY, L, Lloyd Library (Cincinnati), Universitait Regensburg, and Universite de Liege. Given minor color discrepancies in individual copies (i.e., the color of C. flava in the volumes at Liege), the color is astonishingly consistent throughout the distribution. Second, subsequent literature is important only as the authors had personal links to the original author. For example, Persoon's (1800) commentary on Schaeffer's work and Fries' publications cannot be trusted to reliably reflect Schaeffer's concepts, for neither author had personal connection with Schaeffer but only possessed the same evidence as all subsequent authors. Third, when herbarium material in subsequent extralimital classic herbaria (e.g., Swedish specimens in herb. Fries) seems to fulfill Schaeffer's description, care must be taken to ascertain the occurrence of such taxa in the Bavarian "topotype" area. Strangely, specimens of this genus from Bavaria are not common, but the exsiccati of Starcs, relatively widely distributed (in USA at BPI and NY to my knowledge), and specimens in herb. Killermann at Munich often verify distribution of such taxa. Finally, descriptions that differ from those of Schaeffer must be examined carefully. For example, the notion that the fruit body base in R. flava stains deep red or winecolored apparently arose fairly early, possibly in Fries' concept. Bresadola (1932) illustrated R. flava with a red base, and his concept was perpetuated by Konrad & Maublanc (1926) and Corner (1950, 1966, 1970). The idea was not mentioned or illustrated by Schaeffer and, consequently, must be rejected. It may be argued that Schaeffer's illustrations must serve as types for his specific epithets, so only representative specimens are specified herein. Colors are cited from Seguy (1936) by numbers in parentheses followed by S, and from Ridgway (1912) in quotes. Recipes for macrochemicals may be found in Singer (1962) and Marr and

Evidence is given for acceptance of Clavaria inaequalis Müller ex Fr. as a valid species, including description of a specimen from the herbarium of Fries. Four species of Clavaria (including C. californica Pet., sp. nov. and C. neonigrita Pet., sp. nov.) are described with spiny spores, and comments on their phylogenetic relationships are made. A discussion of the appropriateness of separation of Clavaria from Clavulinopsis is included with special reference to Clavaria longispora, Clavulinopsis appalachiensis, and Clavulinopsis corallino-rosacea. Clavaria americana Pet., sp. nov., is proposed.

The rudiments of basidiospores are generally subglobose. Either they remain so by swelling outward from the tip of the sterigma, or, more commonly, they become ellipsoid in a direction practically parallel with the long axis of the basidium. In many species with ellipsoid spores there is a great range in length of the mature spores but comparatively little in width. Such spores continually change shape as they grow, becoming more and more elongate; and one would expect, therefore, that closely related species, differing mainly in spore size, should have differently shaped spores. The tendency is to classify species according to the shape of the spore and to separate species according to its size. The method seems unnatural and, as it may seriously affect systematy, I have studied the problem in groups of very closely related species. The initial difficulty has been to discover such groups because local floras do not necessarily contain very closely related species. Thus, Amanita muscaria and A. rubescens, Paxillus involutus and P. atrotomentosus, or Clavaria argillacea and C. vermicularis are not very closely related, for each has much closer tropical allies. For the purpose of discovering affinities and, so, of arriving at truly mycological comparisons, I have monographed the species of Clavaria and allied genera. The results suggest a fundamental law of hyphal growth, and I have accordingly abstracted a few illustrations and added some examples from other groups in order to give a general account.

The taxa from south-eastern Australia are described, and keys to species are furnished. Clavaria stegasauroides, C. citrinorubra, and C. muscula are described as new, and the character of the clamp connections in the genus is discussed.

Tribe I, Cordyceps, within the comprehensive genus Sphaeria Hall. In the following year Greville (1824), printed a diagnosis of a genus Xylaria, ascribed to the pre-friesian author Hill, embracing three species, X. hypoxylon, X. digitata and X. polymorpha, all adopted from Persoon's Synopsis fungorum, 18o 0, in which they figured under Sphaeria. The name Xylaria in the sense of Greville was adopted by Fries (1849) and has since come to be combined in some 400 specific names, though the number of species is probably less than a quarter of this. As long as valid publication of the names of Fungi caeteri was held to commence with the date of publication of the part of Systema mycologicum in which they were dealt with the name Xylaria was clearly correctly employed in the above sense. At the International Botanical Congress at Stockholm (1950), however, it was decided that valid publication of names of all Fungi caeteri must be held to commence on Ist January, 1821, provided that names published between 1821 and 1832 did not conflict with those used by Fries in any part of Systema mycologicum or Elenchus fungorum. By this decision Xylaria Grev. became a later homonym of Xylaria S. F. Gray 1821, a genus of 6 species, none of which would be regarded today as congeneric with the 3 species of Greville 1824. Modern authors refer 3 of S. F. Gray's species to Cordyceps (Fr.) Link, I to Podostroma Karst. I in part to Clavaria Fr. while the sixth is an entomogenous fungus of doubtful character. The fungi which became the foundation species of Xylaria Grev. were placed by S. F. Gray in a genus Hypoxylon. His usage of this name was, however, antedated in 1821 by that of M6rat. Hypoxylon M6rat included 5 species viz. H. militare (L.) Merat, H. radicosum (Bull.) M6rat, H. cornutum (Hoffm.) M6rat, which is the fungus commonly called Xylaria hypoxylon today, H. polymorphum (Pers.) Merat and H. digitatum (L.) Mirat. In modern usage the first named is a species of Cordyceps, the last three and possibly the second belong to Xylaria Grev. Recently my good friend Dr. M. A. Donk has drawn my attention to another validly published generic name available for the species of Xylaria Grev. non S. F. Gray viz. Xylosphaera Dumortier (1822). Dumortier divided the comprehensive genus Sphaeria, which had been validated for modern usage by M6rat in the previous year, into nineteen genera, each briefly diagnosed in Latin and provided with a list of the specific epithets transferred to it from Sphaeria. To Xylosphaera he referred 8 species, 7 at least have subsequently been placed in Xylaria Grev.