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Plantagos are important economical and medicinal plants that possess several bioactive secondary metabolites, such as phenolics, iridoids, triterpenes, and alkaloids. Triterpenoids are the ubiquitous and dynamic secondary metabolites that are deployed by plants for chemical interactions and protection under biotic/abiotic stress. Plantago ovata, a cultivated species, is the source of psyllium, while Plantago major, a wild species, has significant therapeutic potential. Wild species are considered more tolerant to stressful conditions in comparison to their cultivated allies. In view of this, the present study aimed to decipher the terpenoid biosynthetic pathway operative in P. ovata and P. major using a comparative transcriptomics approach. Majority of terpenoid biosynthetic genes were observed as upregulated in P. major including rate limiting genes of MVA (HMGR) and MEP (DXR) pathways and genes (α-AS, BAS, SM, and CYP716) involved in ursolic acid biosynthesis, an important triterpenoid prevalent in Plantago species. The HPLC output further confirmed the higher concentration of ursolic acid in P. major as compared to P. ovata leaf samples, respectively. In addition to terpenoid biosynthesis, KEGG annotation revealed the involvement of differentially expressed unigenes in several metabolic pathways, aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis, biosynthesis of antibiotics, and biosynthesis of secondary metabolites. MYB was found as the most abundant transcription factor family in Plantago transcriptome. We have been able to generate valuable information which can help in improving terpenoid production in Plantago. Additionally, the present study has laid a strong foundation for deciphering other important metabolic pathways in Plantago.

Invasive plant species are a major threat to biodiversity worldwide. Thus, information on their distribution, morphological variation as well as their reaction to ecological parameters are required to adequately evaluate their threat and manage invasions. Plantago major is a cosmopolitan invasive plant species and a possible threat to the local flora in dry grasslands. A multivariate analysis of data acquired from 19 populations of this species across various locations in Iran was used to evaluate the diversity of quantitative and qualitative morphological traits possibly affected by ecological factors to understand its distribution pattern. Morphological traits were variable and depended on the location of observation. Quantitative traits in particular exhibited a higher variation than qualitative traits between populations, with higher diversity in populations from the Central Alborz and Khorasan. Further, populations with higher vegetative growth had relatively lower reproductive fitness, i.e. a trade-off between the number of seeds per individual and vegetative traits. Cluster analysis based on either morphological data or ecological variables were capable to group the populations close to their geographical origins, despite correlation coefficients of ecological variables with morphological traits being mainly non-significant. Our results provide important insights into the variability of P. major and potentially allow inferences on distribution limits in Iran.

The plant tissue culture technique has enabled us to study the tolerance of cells, tissues, and plant organs and cultures to different stresses that plants suffer from. The in vitro culture facilitates the ability to stimulate the production of secondary metabolites. The present study investigated the influence of paclobutrazol (PBZ) pre-treatment on the growth, physiological, morphological, biochemical traits, and phenolic compounds production in callus cultures of Plantago major L. in a medium containing different concentrations of cadmium. The callus was cultured in a Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium with different concentrations of cadmium (0, 50, 100, 150, and 200 µM), with a PBZ concentration of 0 and 2 mg l-1. A factorial experiment based on a completely randomized design (CRD) was performed in triplicate. The results of the growth of the callus culture were obtained after 28 days. The increasing concentrations of cadmium were found to have a negative effect on some traits such as fresh weight (FW), dry weight (DW), browning intensity (BI), tolerance index (TI), electrolyte leakage (EL), and membrane stability index (MSI). The PBZ treatment reduced the effects of cadmium levels through the decrease in malondialdehyde (MDA), and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). This was caused by a significant increase in superoxide dismutase (SOD) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX). Also, there was an increase in total phenol and flavonoids content in the callus grown on the tissue cultures supporting 200 µM cadmium compared to the other levels. The PBZ pre-treatment was a significant reducing factor to produce total phenolic and flavonoids content in P. major L. callus culture under the cadmium levels.

Using various chromatographic separations, five iridoid glucosides (1―5) and five phenylethanoid glycosides (6―10) were isolated from the Plantago major whole plants and included two new compounds: 10-acetylarborescoside (1) and plantainoside G (6). Their structures were elucidated by detailed analysis of 1D and 2D NMR data, HR QTOF MS data, and experimental and calculated ECD data. The isolated compounds exhibited moderate inhibitory effects on NO overproduction in LPS-stimulated BV2 microglial cells, with IC50 values ranging from 44.2–62.3 μM.

The heavy metal concentration in plant tissues of Ranunculus ficaria, Plantago major, Taraxacum officinale, and Achillea millefolium, frequently consumed or used in traditional medicine, collected from one of radioactive area of Romania, not been previously reported by any research group. The content of Cr, Mn, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb were determined by ICP-MS. To evaluate the level of pollution, the plants are examined to determine the EDI, HRI and TTHQ values, to reach a judgment about whether their consumption is risky or not in terms of human health. The high amounts of Cd, Mn and Pb, in tissues of Taraxacum officinale and Plantago major, lead to the fact that the ecosystem in which these species are growing should be evaluated by the authorities in terms of environmental pollution. DIM and HRI data showed that A. millefiori and R. ficaria can be safely used by locals, while T. officinale and P. major are thought to pose a risk in terms of heavy metals. Accumulation of metals by both roots and leaves in T. officinale and P. major was proportional to the metal concentration in the tailings dumps, while Cr, Mn, Cd, and Pb content exceeded the maximum permissible daily levels.

Chlorpyrifos and the metabolite 3, 5, 6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (TCP) are widespread contamination of aquatic environments especially freshwater fish. The objectives of this study were to evaluate th...

Imidacloprid is known to induce soil pollution. Herein, we improved phytoremediation of soil contaminated with imidacoprid using Plantago major plus effective microorganisms (EM1) and peat-moss und...

1. Ecotypic differences in plant growth and anti‐herbivore defence phenotypes are determined by the complex interactions between the abiotic and the biotic environment. 2. Root‐associated microbes (RAMs) are pervasive in nature, vary over climatic gradients and have been shown to influence the expression of multiple plant functional traits related to biomass accumulation and biotic interactions. We addressed how variation in climatic conditions between lowland and subalpine habitats in the Alps and RAMs can independently or interactively affect plant growth and anti‐herbivore defence trait expression. 3. To address the contribution of climate and RAMs on growth and chemical defences of high‐ and low‐elevation Plantago major ecotypes, we performed a full‐factorial reciprocal transplant field experiment at two elevations. We coupled it with plant functional trait measurements and metabolomics analyses. 4. We found that local growing climatic conditions mostly influenced how the ecotypes grew, but we also found that the high‐ and low‐elevation ecotypes improved biomass accumulation if in the presence of their own‐elevation RAMs. We also found that while chemical defence expression was affected by climate, they were also more highly expressed when plants were inoculated with low‐elevation RAMs. 5. Synthesis: Our research demonstrated that root‐associated microbes (RAMs) from contrasted elevations impact how plants grow or synthesize toxic secondary metabolites. At low elevation, where biotic interactions are stronger, RAMs enhance plant biomass accumulation and the production of toxic secondary metabolites.

Chemical treatments for diarrhoea usually lead to side effects, so humans are seeking out a safe pharmaceutical source to cure them. From ancient times, medicinal plants have served as an important pharmaceutical source for the treatment of various acute and chronic diseases and infectious and non-infectious diseases. This study was carried out from April 2017 to February 2018 by interviewing with and administering a questionnaires to 29 traditional therapists. The questionnaire also included demographic items. The interviewers referred to the participants in person and asked them certain questions to elicit their beliefs about herbal medicine. Data were finally analyzed by the Excel software. In this study, the frequency of plant use was calculated by using a formula. According to the ethnobotanical knowledge of the region under study, Astragalus hamosus L., Ziziphora taurica M.Bieb., Anthemis hyalina DC., Plantago major L., Quercus brantii Lindl., Myrtus communis L., Satureja bachtiarica Bung., Glycyrrhiza glabra L., Peganum harmala L., Rheum ribes L., Rumex pulcher L., Artemisia absinthium, Descurainia sophia (L.) Prantle., Plantago major L. and some others medicinal plants are used as antidiarrhoeal medicinal plants. Most plant species reported belong to the Asteraceae family and the aerial part (36%) is the most frequently used plant organ for cases of diarrhoea in Shahrekord. The scientific registration and review of the written and non-written knowledge of different ethnicities in Iran regarding traditional medicine will help preserve the valuable treasure of thousands of years of Iranians’ medical knowledge and experience and will provide the basis for the discovery of new drugs and the progress of the pharmaceutical industry.

Made available in DSpace on 2021-06-25T11:54:13Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2021-05-01 Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais (FAPEMIG) In this present study, we investigated the influence of various extraction methods including maceration, sonication, infusion, decoction, and microwave extraction, on the chemical and biological potential of phytochemicals extracted from three medicinal plants (Ageratum conyzoides, Plantago major and Arctium lappa L). The results were subsequently analyzed by variance analysis. Our results suggested that sonication is the most effective extraction method among the five methods tested herein, for the extraction of phytochemicals that have a high antioxidant potential and high phenolic content. The three plants employed for this study had a high concentration of flavonoids and phenolics which was compatible with the chemosystematics of the species. All the samples possessed a Sun Protection Factor (SPF) of less than 6. Interestingly, a maximum reaction time of approximately 20 min was noted for the complexation of AlCl3 with the flavonoids present in the phytochemical extract during analyses of the kinetic parameters. We finally identified that the Ageratum conyzoides extract, prepared by sonication, possessed a significant pharmacological potential against hepatocarcinoma tumour cells, whose result can guide further studies for its therapeutic efficacy. Fed Univ Jequitinhonha & Mucuri Valleys, Inst Sci Engn & Technol, Teofilo Otoni, Brazil Paulista State Univ Julio Mesquita Filho, Pharm Coll, Araraquara, SP, Brazil Fed Technol Univ Parana, Nanotechnol & Computat Chem Lab NanoQC, Londrina, Parana, Brazil Univ Fed Amazonas, Inst Biol Sci ICB, Biotechnol Dept, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil Fed Inst Educ Sci & Technol Maranhao, Res Ctr Appl Sci NIAC, Sao Luis, Maranhao, Brazil Univ Fed Juiz de Fora, Organ Chem Dept, Juiz De Fora, Brazil Paulista State Univ Julio Mesquita Filho, Pharm Coll, Araraquara, SP, Brazil FAPEMIG: 00076

Millions of people suffer from Musculoskeletal System Disorders (MSDs), including Karen people who work hard in the fields for their subsistence and have done so for generations. This has forced the Karen to use many medicinal plants to treat MSDs. We gathered data from 15 original references covering 27 Karen communities and we document 461 reports of the use of 175 species for treating MSDs among the Karen people in Thailand. The data were analyzed by calculating use values (UV), relative frequency of citation (RFC) and informant consensus factor (ICF). Many use reports and species were from Leguminosae and Zingiberaceae. Roots and leaves were the most used parts, while the preferred preparation methods were decoction and burning. Oral ingestion was the most common form of administration. The most common ailment was muscle pain. Sambucus javanica and Plantago major were the most important species because they had the highest and second-highest values for both UV and RFC, respectively. This study revealed that the Karen people in Thailand use various medicinal plants to treat MSDs. These are the main resources for the further development of inexpensive treatments of MSDs that would benefit not only the Karen, but all people who suffer from MSD.

Greater plantain or common plantain (Plantago major L.) is an herbaceous plant native to most of Europe, northern and central Asia, and it has adapted well to tropical regions where it is used as a medicinal plant. Between November 2011 and April 2012, greater plantains cultivated in the Medicinal Plant Garden at the Umuarama Advanced Campus of the State University of Maringa (UEM-CAU) suddenly died off. A visual examination revealed the presence of white mycelium and sclerotia on the lower third of the plant. These sclerotia were collected and deinfested by immersion in 70% alcohol and 0.5% sodium hypochlorite for 45 s, and in sterilized water for 1 min. Next, the sclerotia were placed on 10 petri dishes containing potato dextrose agar (PDA) culture medium and incubated at 29°C. After 7 days, the culture medium was entirely coated with a cottony white mycelial growth and, 15 days after isolation, sclerotia began to form. Healthy seedlings were transplanted individually into pots containing autoclaved soil (120°C/2 h). After 10 days, eight seedlings were inoculated with 8-mm mycelia disks deposited on the base of the plant, and eight seedlings inoculated with fungus-free PDA disks (control). The plants were irrigated and the pots placed in with plastic bags and kept at an average temperature of 28°C. Three days after inoculation, we observed a cottony white mycelial growth and symptoms of rot on the plants. The plastic bags were then removed and the plants kept under the same temperature, relative humidity of 80% and 12 h of light. Seven days after inoculation, the plants treated with the fungus died, whereas the plants treated with PDA developed normally. The fungus was re-isolated from the symptomatic plants and slides evaluated under a light microscope, revealing that the mycelium was thick, septate, and hyaline. The sclerotia formed were spherical, initially white or light brown, becoming dark brown or black, with diameters ranging from 0.5 to 1.5 mm. The fungus was subjected to DNA analysis using ribosomal region oligonucleotides ITS4 (5′-TCCTCCGCTTATTGATAT-3′) and ITS5 (5′-GGAAGTAAAAGTCGTAACAAGG-3′) (1) to amplify the target region. The segment including the 5.8S gene and rDNa regions ITS1 and ITS2 was 630 bp long. DNA analysis revealed that it was 99% identical to Athelia rolfsii (Curzi) Tu and Kimbr (anamorph: S. rolfsii) (GenBank Accession No. HM222638.1). The isolate was deposited in the fungus collection at the UEM-CAU Phytopathology Laboratory under code F-Sr-01-UMU. Reference: (1) T. J. White et al. Page 315 in: PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methods and Applications, M. A. Innis et al., eds. Academic Press, San Diego, CA, 1990.

Fluctuation of the summer day-time temperatures in the mid-latitudes in a range from 16 to 30°C should not have irreversible negative effects on plants, but may influence metabolic processes including the oxidative stress. To test the effect of moderately high temperature on oxidative stress induced by lead in the leaves of Plantago major L.; the plants were incubated in a water solution of 0, 150, 450, and 900 μM Pb (NO3)2 at 20 and 28°C. Plant reactions were evaluated by the content of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and ascorbate peroxidase and glutathione reductase activities in leaves after 2, 24, 48, and 72 h. The Pb concentration in the leaves rose with the increase in the Pb content and was higher at 20°C. The increase in stomatal resistance caused by Pb was higher at 28°C. The contents of TBARS increased after 2 h of plant exposure to Pb and the increase was the highest at 900 μM Pb, 28°C. The AsP activity increased up to 50% after 24 h of Pb-treatment at 28°C; the highest increase in glutathione reductase activity was observed after 72 h at 20°C. Thus, the moderately high temperature 28°C compared with optimal 20°C caused a decrease in Pb accumulation in Plantago leaves but amplified the negative effects of lead, especially in the beginning of stress development.

2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is a common ingredient in POST broadleaf herbicides labeled for use in turf, pastures, rangeland, and grain crops. The herbicide 2,4-D is a weak acid, and when dissociated can bind to cations present in hard-water spray solutions and/or fertilizer solutions. Experiments were conducted with 2,4-D dimethylamine to evaluate the effect of cation solutions on herbicide efficacy on the perennial broadleaf weeds dandelion and broadleaf plantain. The objectives of this research were to (1) determine if 2,4-D efficacy is influenced by the divalent cations, calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), and zinc (Zn) in spray solution; and (2) determine if adding the adjuvant ammonium sulfate (AMS) to the spray solution can overcome antagonism. Broadleaf plantain and dandelion control was reduced and plant size and mass increased when 2,4-D was applied in a Ca solution in comparison to deionized water. However, 2,4-D antagonism was overcome when AMS was added as an adjuvant to the spray solution. Magnesium caused 2,4-D antagonism on both weed species in one run of the experiment similar to Ca solution and AMS was successful at overcoming antagonism when added to the tank mixture. Some 2,4-D antagonism from Mn was noticed even when AMS was in the tank mix, but Zn fertilizer solutions did not antagonize 2,4-D activity on either weed species. Although divalent cations can antagonize 2,4-D dimethylamine and reduce perennial broadleaf weed control, adding AMS can overcome this antagonism when Ca and Mg are the primary cations in spray solution. Applicators should avoid using Mn fertilizers when applying 2,4-D dimethylamine because AMS did not successfully overcome antagonism.

We have attempted to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of sporoderm development and pattern determination in Plantago major through a detailed ontogenetic study, using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). We aim to compare our observations and interpretation with those on other species. Our study of sporoderm development in Plantago from the early tetrad stage to mature pollen grains has shown that pure physical processes, including self-assembly, which are not under direct genetic control, play an important role and represent evidently one of the instruments of evolution. Our observations fit well with the sequence of self-assembling micellar mesophases and show reiteration of some of them, confirming our self-assembly hypothesis. Some attention was also paid to the possible role of rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum in the cortical cytoplasm of the developing microspores. The tapetum and Ubisch bodies development are also traced. The importance of ...

The relationship between vegetation and soil supporting the habitats in 4 new industrial cities were assessed. Five main habitats were distinguished from inner city toward outskirts: lawns, home gardens, public gardens, waste lands and desert outskirts. After application of Twinspan, 26 vegetation groups were identified in the 5 recognized habitats, demonstrating that some groups are chatracteristic of a certain city, e.g. Asphodelus aestivus - Deverra tortuosa - Thymelaea hirsuta group was confined to the desert habitat of Burg El-Arab city; Thymelaea hirsuta - Linaria albifrons and Atriplex halimus - Atriplex lindleyi subsp. inflata - Suaeda vermiculata - Typha domingensis groups were found in the waste lands of Burg El-Arab city; Conyza bonariensis - Cynodon dactylon - Sonchus oleraceus group in the home garden habitat of 10th Ranadan city; Cynodon dactylon group in the lawns of Burg El-Arab city; Bassia indica - Plantago major group in the public gardens of Burg El-Arab city; Oxalis corniculata - Plantago lagopus group in the public gardens of 10th Ramadan city; Sonchus oleraceus - Cynodon dactylon and Dactyloctenium aegyptium - Leptochloa fusca - Phragmites australis groups in the public gardens of 6th October city. Silt, clay, organic matter, carbonates and carbon contents showed significant diffrences among the 5 habitats.

The wound-healing properties of Plantago major L. (plantain) were evaluated using an ex-vivo porcine wound-healing model. Ethanol- and water-based extracts were prepared from greenhouse-grown and freeze-dried leaves of P. major. Both types of extracts stimulated wound healing in porcine skin, but the ethanol-based extracts had a somewhat stronger effect. A concentration of 1.0 mg/mL (on dry weight basis) produced the best results for both types of extracts.

Four representative species of different growth forms viz., rhizomatous forbs (Rumex nepalensis Spreng.), mat-forming forbs (Plantago major Linn.), stoloniferous forbs (Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle ex Benth.) and prostrate creeping dwarf shrubs (Skimmia laureola Hook. f.) were exposed to CO2 to assess its effect on their growth, morphology and dry matter partitioning in situ Indian alpine. Elevated CO2 significantly stimulated the growth, morphology and biomass allocation of three growth forms (rhizomatous forbs, stoloniferous forbs and prostrate creeping dwarf shrubs) through increased plant height, leaf number and area whereas, in mat-forming forbs all above parameters except plant height, decreased. Shoot–root length, diameter and leaf thickness showed similar increase in three growth forms, except in mat-forming forbs, where only shoot length increased. Elevated CO2 enhanced more dry matter partitioning towards the sink. The study concludes that all the plant species adapted to alpine environment may not respond positively to rising atmospheric CO2 in future due to variable adaptive capacity and metabolic adjustments to changing climate.

In the study, structural features of flowers of the following allergenic plant species were analysed: Betula verrucosa, Secale cereale, Rumex acetosella, Plantago major and Artemisia vulgaris. Pollen production was established by calculating the number of pollen grains produced by the stamen, flower and inflorescence. The dates of occurrence and pollen grains concentration in the air of Lublin were determined. A positive correlation was found between the length of anthers and the number of pollen grains produced. The largest number of pollen grains per anther is produced by Secale cereale (22 360), whereas the smallest one by Plantago major (5 870). The other species produced intermediate numbers of pollen grains in the anther: Betula verrucosa - 11 160, Rumex acetosella - 10 850, Artemisia vulgaris - 9 580. The birch pollen season in Lublin lasts about a month, and pollen of this taxon reaches the highest airborne concentrations among the studied taxa. Low values of pollen concentrations are characteristic for rye and plantain, whereas slightly higher values are recorded for sorrel pollen. Mugwort pollen reaches high concentrations which are noted at the beginning of August.

Occurrence and direction of introgressive hybridization between Plantago major taxa were tested. Plantago major plants were collected from 10 Egyptian locations. Four populations of two European taxa were used for comparison. These are ecologically and geographically separated and were identified as the subspecies Plantago major ssp. major and Plantago major ssp. intermedia . In the Egyptian populations, most individuals fall within the variation range of P. major ssp. intermedia . Only one population, from Burg El-Arab, morphologically resembled clearly P. major ssp. major and showed some ISSR fragments that characterize pure populations of this taxon. All individuals of population 2 (Alexandria) and some individuals of populations 1, 3, 5, 6 and 10 (Alexandria, Aswan) morphologically corresponded to P. major ssp. intermedia . All individuals collected from Egypt had ISSR fragments characterizing both pure P. major ssp. major and pure P. major ssp. intermedia . Most of these individuals had a higher percentage of intermedia -type fragments than major -type fragments, suggesting that P. major ssp. intermedia in Egypt shows some introgression towards P. major ssp. major. The pure populations were distinct from each other, while the Egyptian populations were intermediate according to principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) of ISSR data. In the populations collected from Egypt, major and intermedia cannot be seen as separate species. The study suggests that the dominant taxa introgressed to the minority population(s). Taxon frequency may be a key component in determining the direction of introgression.

In the present study, developmental stability of leaf traits was examined in three natural populations of Plantago major L. (ssp. major), representing two polluted environments (Karaburma and Zemun) and an unpolluted area (Crni Lug). Developmental stability was assessed as fluctuating asymmetry (FA). The magnitude of FA is believed to reflect differences in the ability of individuals to buffer their development in natural populations. We hypothesized that there are differences within characters and among characters in response to environmental conditions. Significant patterns of asymmetry correlations and asymmetry changes were detected both within characters and between characters. The manova results revealed a significant effect of individual and a significant individual × environment interaction on actual asymmetry (logLi − logRi) and on the amount of asymmetry |(logLi − logRi)| for leaf width and vein distances within a leaf. Over time, statistically significant and positive correlations of the FA values were detected for each trait separately per sample (population). For both leaf traits, there were differences for (logLi − logRi) and |(logLi − logRi)| asymmetry values among individuals within samples in response to yearly variations. Statistically significant and negative correlations for (logLi − logRi) versus |(logLi − logRi)| asymmetries were detected for both leaf traits. In summary, our results highlight the importance of differences in the ability of individuals to buffer their development under different environmental conditions and point to the concept that developmental stability is character specific.

The paper presents results of research on seed sculpture of Plantago major, P. intermedia, P. media, P. coronopus subsp. coronopus, P. maritima subsp. maritima, P. atrata subsp. carpatica, P. lanceolata and P. arenaria. Special attention was paid to the sculpture of the external layer of the testa. Observations were made under a light microscope and a scanning electron microscope. The sculpture typical for each species was presented in micrographs. The results indicate that seed sculpture is a very good interspecific identification feature. The study also confirmed that P. maritima should not be assigned to the section Coronopus DC., but to a separate section Maritima Rahn.

Exposure to ozone (O 3 ) affects both vegetative and reproductive growth in plants, although consequences for seed yield depend on the efficacy of compensatory reproductive processes. This study examined whether the limited compensatory capacity of species with determinate reproductive strategies influences seed production following exposure. The first flowering spike (Spike 1) of Plantago major L. populations which exhibit contrasting sensitivity of vegetative growth to chronic O 3 exposure was exposed, while the leaves and second spike (Spike 2) received charcoal-filtered air. Exposure of Spike 1 during flowering influenced seed number capsule −1 on both spikes, even though Spike 2 was not exposed. Responses varied between populations, position on the spike and plant age at the start of exposure; the greater impact on capsules located on the upper section of the spike suggests they were more responsive. Compensatory increases in seed number capsule −1 in the middle and upper sections of Spikes 1 and 2 generally precluded significant effects on seed number spike −1 ; individual seed weight was largely unaffected. However, the combined seed weight of Spikes 1 and 2 was increased by 19% in the two O 3 -resistant populations following exposure to 120 ppb O 3 on 9 successive days, suggesting that they over-compensated for injury, but was reduced by 21% in the most sensitive population. Compensatory reproductive responses and their possible implications for biomass production, biodiversity and carbon sequestration in natural communities in temperate regions are discussed.

In the present study, an additional combination of end‐points was applied on the natural populations of the common plantain, previously estimated using morphometric assays. Here, besides measuring developmental instability (DI), by determining the level of fluctuating asymmetry (FA) and the total amount of phenotypic variability (PV), we tried to distinguish the three natural populations under contrasting environmental conditions using the morphological data. Results obtained using both FA indices were the same; higher asymmetry levels in the reference than in the polluted environments were detected for leaf width, vein distances within a leaf and lobe length. The one‐way analysis of variance results revealed that there were significant differences in PV values among populations analysed for each character. When all leaf traits were considered together, the PV median value was significantly higher in Crni Lug leaves compared with leaves from other sites. The multivariate analysis of variance resu...

The aims of this research were to study using chlorophyll and carotenoid as bioindicator air quality. This research used completely randomized design 2 x 4 factorial with 5 replicates. The first factor was distance from source of exhaust automobile emissions, consists of 4 levels: 0,50, 100, and 200 m. The second factor was plant spesies, consist 2 level: Plantago major and Phaseolus vulgaris. Data collected were analyzed using Multiple Regression Analysis followed by Duncan Multiple Range Test in 5% confidence level. The result indicated that increasing distance from source exhaust automobile emission, increased growth and chlorophyll content. Chlorophyll content in Phaseolus is more sensitive as bioindicator for air pollution.© 2007 Jurusan Biologi FMIPA UNS SurakartaKey words: chlorophyll, bioindicator, Planatago major, Phaseolus vulgaris.

Although Plantago major and Plantago asiatica have similar life-history characteristics, P. major populations expand much more rapidly than P. asiatica in habitats where both species occur. One potential factor contributing to this disparity is the production of phytotoxic compounds. However, the phytotoxic characteristics of P. major and P. asiatica have not yet reported. Therefore, we conducted an investigation of possible phytotoxic compounds with allelopathic activity in both species. Aqueous methanol extracts of both plant species inhibited root and hypocotyl growth of garden cress (Lepidium sativum) in a concentration dependent manner. However, the inhibitory effect of P. major was greater than that of P. asiatica. The extracts were further purified by several chromatographic runs and two main phytotoxic compounds were isolated and identified through spectral analysis as (−)-3-hydroxy-β-ionone and blumenol A. (−)-3-Hydroxy-β-ionone and blumenol A inhibited the growth and germination of garden cress at concentrations greater than 1 and 30 μM, respectively. The level of (−)-3-hydroxy-β-ionone in P. major was 7.2-fold greater than that in P. asiatica, while the level of blumenol A was equal in both plant species. Although these Plantago species produce two main phytotoxic compounds with allelopathic activity, the higher level of (−)-3-hydroxy-β-ionone in P. major may result in it contributing the primary inhibitory effects of the extract of P. major. (−)-3-hydroxy-β-ionone may also serve to distinguish the invasive habit of two species and may be involved in the expansion in habitats of P. major.

This paper contains significant ethnobotanical information on folk-medicinal plants and their ethnopharmacological uses in Kadışehri. The aim of the study was mainly to collect and identify the plants used therapeutically by the local people, and to make available information about traditional herbal medicine. It was undertaken during the period 2011–2012 and is based on plants collected during field work. Fifty-six plants used in folk-medicine and belonging to 34 families were identified in this study. Of these, 48 species were wild, and 8 species were cultivated plants. The most common families were Rosaceae (12.5%), Lamiaceae (8.9%) and Asteraceae (7.1%); and the most common preparations were decoctions (36.7%). In addition, a cultural importance index (CI) and use report (UR) were calculated for each species. Based on the CI, the most important plants were Cydonia oblonga (0.77), Ecballium elaterium (0.66), Urtica urens (0.66), Vitis vinifera (0.66), Plantago lanceolata (0.65), Plantago major subsp. major (0.65) and Rosa canina (0.62). We found three species of plant (Astragalus noaeanus, Populus ×canescens and Salvia cyanescens) which had never before been reported to have medicinal properties.

Plantago is the most important genus of Plantaginaceae family and is used in traditional medicine around the world for different purposes. Plantago coronopus L., Plantago major L., Plantago media L. and Plantago lanceolata L. are most commonly used species of Plantago in traditional medicine in Turkey. The main goal of this study was to investigate the eventual anti-mitotic and anti-genotoxic effects of P. lanceolata L. leaf aqueous extracts (15 g/L and 30 g/L) on Allium cepa L. root tip meristem cells which were treated with 0.7% hydrogen peroxide. For this purpose, two different experiments were performed under the same conditions. In the first experiment, Allium cepa onion bulbs were treated with 0.7% H2O2 for 1 h. After the H2O2 treatment, the onion bulbs were treated with two different concentrations (15 g/L and 30 g/L) of P. lanceolata extracts for 24 h. In the second experiment, A. cepa onion bulbs were treated with two different extract concentrations (15 g/L and 30 g/L) for 24 h and then with 0.7% H2O2 for 1 h. The test concentrations were determined according to doses which are recommended in alternative medicinal usage by people. As positive and negative control 0.7% H2O2 and tap water was used, respectively. As a result, it was determined that aqueous extracts reduced mitotic index and chromosome aberrations in treatment groups in comparison with controls. These results showed that P. lanceolata aqueous extracts have anti-mitotic and anti-genotoxic effects.

The vascular tissue of higher plants consists of specialized cells that differ from all other cells with respect to their shape and size, their organellar composition, their extracellular matrix, the type of their plasmodesmata, and their physiological functions. Intact and pure vascular tissue can be isolated easily and rapidly from leaf blades of common plantain (Plantago major), a plant that has been used repeatedly for molecular studies of phloem transport. Here, we present a transcriptome analysis based on 5,900 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) and 3,247 independent mRNAs from the Plantago vasculature. The vascular specificity of these ESTs was confirmed by the identification of well-known phloem or xylem marker genes. Moreover, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, macroarray, and northern analyses revealed genes and metabolic pathways that had previously not been described to be vascular specific. Moreover, common plantain transformation was established and used to confirm the vascular specificity of a Plantago promoter-β-glucuronidase construct in transgenic Plantago plants. Eventually, the applicability and usefulness of the obtained data were also demonstrated for other plant species. Reporter gene constructs generated with promoters from Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) homologs of newly identified Plantago vascular ESTs revealed vascular specificity of these genes in Arabidopsis as well. The presented vascular ESTs and the newly developed transformation system represent an important tool for future studies of functional genomics in the common plantain vasculature.

A method for determining with a relative uncertainty of less than 3% the total content of polysaccharides in Plantago major leaves that were converted to galacturonic acid was developed using the Dreywood method. The polysaccharide content in Plantago major leaves determined by the developed method was 1.44-1.52%.

In the present study, an additional approach was used to evaluate the potential effects of the industrial development on natural population of the common plantain (Plantago major L.), previously estimated using si2 as an index of fluctuation asymmetry (FA) together with the coefficient of variation (CV). In this study, directional asymmetry (DA), a form of asymmetry in bilaterally symmetric traits, was used in order to estimate its rule as a potential indicator of developmental instability in leaf traits. Obtained results shows significantly higher DA values for the vein distances within a leaf (VD) on environmentally stressed area than in the control site. Reporting significantly higher values of DA for VD on the environmentally stressed sample and a positive relationship between FA and CV values obtained for the same trait within the same site, in a previous study, the study corroborates the potential of DA as an indicator of developmental perturbations.

The two taxa Plantago major ssp. major and ssp. intermedia from different geographical regions were investigated karyologically. The separation of the two taxa depends mainly on seed number and size. The average karyotypic configuration for each population was used to contrast ideograms between populations from ssp. major and ssp. intermedia. The study revealed that the two taxa have distinct cytotypes which are somewhat correlated with seed number as an indication of taxonomic identity. The variation between two taxa is expressed by two main cytological groups based on the total form percentage (TF %) which measures the symmetry of the chromosomes over the whole karyotype. The study also revealed that the evolution of the P. major group may be in part due to chromosomal rearrangement. The study concluded that most major karyotypes are more symmetrical than those of intermedia, which may be an indication that intermedia is the derived type.

Effects of an increased lead (Pb) content in soil on growth, photosynthesis (P N) and anatomical parameters of Plantago major L. plants grown under controlled conditions were studied. The total dry weights of plants at 500 and 2000 mg kg−1 Pb in soil were correspondingly 70% and 54% of those of control plants. A reduced leaf area and changed leaf structure caused a decrease in P N in the whole plant. The specific leaf weight (SLW) increased as compared with that of control plants. An increasing Pb content in soil caused a larger number of chloroplasts and larger sizes of protoplasts, a decrease in the chlorophyll a+b contents and a larger number of stomata per unit leaf area based both in adaxial and abaxial epidermis, as compared with control plants. However their conductance was from 40% to 50% lower than that in control plants. It was noted that the dimensions of conducting bundles decreased mainly because of the reduced xylem area. The lower functional activity and the changes at different structural levels of the photosynthetic apparatus caused a decrease in the growth rate of plants at a high Pb content in soil.

Summary Three subspecies enter to Plantago major L. In recent literature: P. major subsp. major, P. major subsp. intermedia (Gilib.) Lange, P. major subsp. wintert (Wirtgen) W. Ludwig. The first taxon is distinctive of dry and trampled on places; the second one is distinctive of moist places and the latter of coastal saline habitats. The recent discovery, in the mouth area of Lao river (Calabria, Southern Italy), of very big sized plants surely referable to P. major s.l., suggested to examine closely the variability of this species. These plants, identified as Plantago sinuata Lam., show morphological and karyological (2n=12, 36) features, which deserve to distinguish this taxon from the three subspecies acknowledged up to now. Lamarck's specimen of P. sinuata conserved in P-LA is typified. The combination P. major subsp. pleiosperma Pilger is accepted instead of P. major subsp. intermedia (Gilib.) Lange, incorrectly used until now. P. major L. subsp. sinuate (Lam.) Peruzzi et N. G. Passai., stat. nov. is...

Changes in net photosynthetic rate (PN), stomatal conductance (gs), intercellular CO2 concentrations (Ci), transpiration rate (E) and water use efficiency (WUE) were measured in Plantago major L. plants grown under sufficient soil water supply or under soil water stress conditions. The plants had high PN in a wide range of soil water potential and temperature regimes. Soil water had little effect on PN under ambient CO2 concentrations, which was explained by a high carboxylation rate, but increased the dark respiration rate. Carboxylation activity at low Ci depended on RuBP regeneration, whereas at high Ci it depended on the phosphate regeneration rate. The gs and E values were low in plants under stress as compared to the controls that resulted in an increase of WUE. The results obtained show that Plantago major plants have different ways of adaptation to soil water deficit conditions.

There is a paucity of data describing the nature of the trade-off function between reproduction and future performance. Most studies implicitly assume it is a linear function such that allocation of resources to reproduction results in a proportional decline in future survival and reproduction. We reanalyse data from a field experiment with half-sib families of Plantago major L. that suggests this relationship is in fact curvilinear. Low levels of reproductive investment had relatively little impact on future performance and higher levels of investment had a larger impact. To explain this curvilinear pattern, we conducted an experiment to examine the effect of incremental increases in reproductive investment on rates of resource uptake in P. major and Plantago rugelii Decne. Results suggest that, because of differences in the resource requirements of vegetative versus reproductive tissues, reproduction will have little effect on growth, providing that the limiting resources are required in greater quantities for vegetative as compared with reproductive tissues. These results are in accord with a curvilinear trade-off function between reproduction and future performance and provide an explanation for the maintenance of sexual reproduction in species where seed production may contribute minimally to fitness in the short term.Key words: reproductive cost, resource allocation, life-history theory, nitrogen uptake, reproductive photosynthesis, Plantago major, Plantago rugelii.

By the method of thin layer chromatography is set the qualitative composition of hydroxycinnamic acids in the leaves of plantain Plantago major L. and Plantago media L. A comparative spectrophotometric determination of ortodihydrocennamic acid and chlorogenic acid amount has carried out in studied species., Методом тонкослойной хроматографии установлен качественный состав гидроксикоричных кислот в листьях подорожника большого и подорожника среднего. Проведено сравнительное спектрофотометрическое определение суммы орто-дигидрокоричной кислоты и хлорогеновой кислоты в исследуемых видах.

The role of ascorbate in mediating ozone resistance was examined in Plantago major L. Seedlings of eleven populations which exhibited differential resistance to ozone were fumigated in controlled environment chambers with charcoal/Purafil®-filtered air (CFA) or CFA plus 15 nmol·mol –1 ozone overnight rising to a maximum between 12:00–16:00 hours of 75 nmol·mol –1 for 14 d. Measurements of ascorbate content were made on apoplastic and symplastic extracts. Populations differed in their constitutive level of ascorbate in youngest fully expanded leaves, and regression analysis revealed a significant correlation between ascorbate content in ozone-treated leaves and the ozone resistance of the populations. The relationship was stronger using apoplastic ascorbate levels than with corresponding symplastic measurements. The ascorbate content of the youngest fully expanded leaf of an ozone sensitive population was increased by foliar application of ascorbate. No significant difference in stomatal conductance was found between control and ascorbate-treated plants. Following spraying, plants were fumigated with 400 nmol·mol –1 ozone for 7 h. In control plants, ozone exposure resulted in extensive visible leaf damage (20–70 % at the end of the fumigation period) and decreased rates of CO 2 assimilation (–57 %). However, ascorbate treatment prevented the appearance of visible injury, and ameliorated the decline in photosynthesis induced by ozone (–26 %). Modelled data estimating the extent of protection afforded by apoplastic ascorbate against ozone supported the experimental observations. The results suggested that although apoplastic ascorbate plays an important role, other factors must also contribute to the mediation of ozone resistance in P. major .

Patterns of molecular genetic variation were examined in seed collections of Plantago major and Plantago intermedia, used previously to investigate the variations in ozone (O3) resistance of these species across Europe. Total genomic DNA was amplified with random primers (random amplied polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and inter- single sequence repeats (SSR)) to produce 73 genetic markers. In addition, allozyme and chloroplast variations were surveyed. Genetic markers were examined for association with O3 resistance in 18 British populations of P. major as well as 27 continental European populations of P. major and P. intermedia. Two populations that exhibited increased resistance to O3 following several years' exposure to high O3 concentrations in the field showed decreased genetic variation over time. In addition, their genetic composition showed no drastic change, which suggests that the change in resistance to O3 was probably the result of selection on genotypes already present in local populations (selection in situ). It appears that selection for O3 resistance may occur in independent populations, and also may involve a number of genetically determined traits. Consequently the finding that plants with similar degrees of O3 resistance are not closely related was not unexpected. However, the finding of an association of several genetic markers with O3 resistance merits further investigation.

The changes in the autofluorescence spectra of intact Philadelphus grandiflorus, Epiphyllum hybridum, and Plantago major pollen have been observed with microspectrofluorometric method after 100-h exposure to ozone (3 h per day for 5 d per week in total dose 5.0 cm3 m-3). The fluorescence maximum at 530 - 550 nm disappeared in carotenoid-containing pollen of Philadelphus grandiflorus and Epiphyllum hybridum and new maximum at 475 - 480 nm arose that correlated with lipofuscin-like substances observed in the extracts from the pollen grains. The carotenoid-less pollen of Plantago major showed only the increase of the maximum at 470 nm, and no lipofuscin in the extracts. It is supposed that main indicator of the pollen damage by ozone in carotenoid-containing microspores are the lipofuscin-like compounds.

This study examined whether variation in reproductive allocation with size could be explained by differences in the trade-off between reproduction and growth. Seeds from 42 half-sibling families were collected from sites differing in mowing frequency and availability of light, nutrients, and water. Six seedlings from each family were grown in controlled environments and photoperiod manipulations were used to control reproduction. Mass of vegetative and reproductive plants of the same family were compared to assess the trade-off between reproduction and growth. Families collected from habitats with a tall canopy were larger and experienced a greater decrease in growth with reproduction than families from habitats where mowing maintained a short canopy. Reproductive output showed no relationship with size, while reproductive allocation (capsule mass to vegetative mass) decreased with size. This decrease may be a direct consequence of the increase in reproductive cost with size. The increase in cost can be partially explained by increased allocation to reproductive support structures; large individuals produce capsules on more elongate scapes and have a lower capsule to scape ratio. Differences in size and morphology among habitats are presumably the result of selection to avoid damage in mown sites and to avoid shade and ensure pollination in sites with a tall canopy and reduced wind movement.Key words: allometry, life-history theory, size constraints, reproductive effort, reproductive cost.

An efficient micropropagation protocol was developed for an important medicinal plant, Plantago major L. For this purpose, it is recommended to culture shoot-tips on modified MS medium [412.5 mg dm-3 NH4NO3 and 340 mg dm-3 KH2PO4] supplemented with 50 g dm-3 glucose and 0.5 μM 6-benzylaminopurine. Maximum rooting frequency was obtained at 1 μM naphthaleneacetic acid.

Vegetative plants of an inbred line, A4, of Plantage major ssp. pleiosperma (L.) Pilger were grown at 350 mu l 1(-1) or at elevated (700 mu l l(-1)) CO2 in non-limiting nutrient solution with nitrate. Both the relative growth rate (RGR) and the root to total plant weight ratio (RWR) were increased by elevated CO2. However, the stimulation of both RGR and RWR was transient and did not last longer than 8 days. To investigate the physiological mechanisms involved in this stimulation, related changes in C/N metabolism were examined. In the roots soluble sugar concentration increased during the transient period of RGR stimulation (up to 23%), as did the root respiration rate. Changes in nitrogen metabolism were also restricted to this period and consisted of an increase in (1) in vivo and in vitro root nitrate reductase (EC 1.6.6.1) activity, (2) in vitro leaf nitrate reductase activity, (3) leaf and root nitrate reductase mRNA and (4) reduced nitrogen concentration in the roots. The elevated CO2-related signal for the increase in nitrate reductase transcript levels in the roots is discussed in terms of the increased availability of soluble sugars. The results suggest that the short-term enhancement of root carbon and nitrogen metabolism may be responsible for the transient effect of elevated CO, on whole plant RGR.

The typical defense compounds of Plantaginaceae are the iridoid glycosides, which retard growth and/or enhance mortality of non-adapted herbivores. In plants, glycosidic defense compounds and hydrolytic enzymes often form a dual defense system, in which the glycosides are activated by the enzymes to exert biological effects. Yet, little is known about the activating enzymes in iridoid glycoside-containing plants. To examine the role of plant-derived β-glucosidases in the dual defense system of two common plantain species, Plantago lanceolata and Plantago major, we determined the concentration of iridoid glycosides as well as the β-glucosidase activity in leaves of different age. To investigate the presence of other leaf metabolites potentially involved in plant defense, we used a metabolic fingerprinting approach with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with time-of-flight-mass spectrometry. According to the optimal defense hypothesis, more valuable parts such as young leaves should be better protected than less valuable parts. Therefore, we expected that both, the concentrations of defense compounds as well as the β-glucosidase activity, should be highest in younger leaves and decrease with increasing leaf age. Both species possessed β-glucosidase activity, which hydrolyzed aucubin, one of the two most abundant iridoid glycosides in both plant species, with high activity. In line with the optimal defense hypothesis, the β-glucosidase activity in both Plantago species as well as the concentration of defense-related metabolites such as iridoid glycosides correlated negatively to leaf age. When leaf extracts were incubated with bovine serum albumin and aucubin, SDS-PAGE revealed a protein-denaturing effect of the leaf extracts of both plantain species, suggesting that iridoid glycosides and plant β-glucosidase interact in a dual defense system.

Plantago major grows throughout Britain in a range of ozone climates. Because populations have been shown to differ in ozone resistance, the aim of the experiment was to compare the reaction of populations from contrasting ozone climates to different types of ozone exposure. Three populations were grown under controlled conditions in five different ozone treatments (including controls for 10 wk. Development, growth, stomatal conductance and seed production were recorded. Populations were from the south coast of England (Lullington), near a mountain summit (Great Dun Fell) and lowland Scotland (Bush). Ozone treatments were: charcoal and Purafil filtered air (CF); 35 nl l(-1) for 24 h every day: 70 nl l(-1) h for 7 h everyday: CF then three episodes each week of 70 nl l(-1) for 7 h; and 35 nl l(-1) continuously plus three 7 h episodes each week of 70 nl l(-1) . The different ozone treatments resulted in different responses in each population. Ozone promoted senescence in the Great Dun Fell population but not in the others; it reduced root growth more in the Lullington population than in the others but those from Lullington and Great Dun Fell maintained seed production to a much greater extent than the Bush population. The reproductive effort (number of seeds g(-1) of vegetative weight) actually increased in ozone in the Lullington and Great Dun Fell populations. It is suggested that this might he a general stress response rather than being specifically related to ozone. Effects on stomatal conductance were similar to those previously reported and the converse of effects on seed production. The relative responses of the populations varied according to the ozone treatment. Continuous exposure to 35 n1 l(-l) reduced leaf size only in the Great Dun Fell population, but seed output was reduced in the Bush population. In some cases, giving 3-d episodes of 70 n1 l(-1) had a greater effect than giving the dose every day but the effects varied with the population. This greater effect was considered to be a result of the time it takes for a plant to develop maximum anti-oxidant defence, which is lost when the ozone decreases after the episode. A plant exposed to episodes might have to re-induce defence with each exposure. Although it is reported frequently that ozone favours allocation of resources to the shoot over the root, it is concluded that this is an over-simplification of the response. Even within a species there is a complex suite of responses that varies with the population and with ozone exposure. Describing a population as resistant or sensitive is also an over-simplification.

SUMMARY The effects of a combined regime of flooding and trampling on survival, growth and reproduction of some species from river forelands, were studied in a large-scale, outdoor experiment. In additional pot experiments, trampling effects were separated into effects of shoot damage and of soil compaction. Resistance of individual leaves to a tearing force and recovery from damage were measured. Species were selected according to their occurrence in the field in relation to trampling and flooding: Rumex acetosa from seldom flooded, extensively trampled sites; R. crispus from frequently flooded, non-trampled sites; Plantago major ssp. pleiosperma from regularly flooded, non- to heavily-trampled sites and P. major ssp. major from seldom flooded, very heavily trampled sites. Only R. crispus showed obvious morphological adaptations to flooding but their significance was vastly reduced when flooding was combined with trampling. Although they did not possess any important morphological adaptations, both Plantago subspecies survived flooding. Of both Plantago subspecies, P. major ssp. pleiosperma performed better than P. major ssp. major when soil compaction resulted in hypoxia. P. major ssp. major, responded better when the major effect was an increase in penetrometer value. R. acetosa was negatively affected by trampling, flooding and the combination of both. Flooding inhibited flowering during the experiment and trampling reduced seed production. In the pot experiment no interaction was found between shoot damaging and soil compaction due to trampling. Responses to shoot trampling could largely be explained by the tearing resistance in combination with the recovery characteristics of the species. Species occurring on more trampled sites in the field had a higher resistance to tearing stress and a better recovery after shoot damage.

The wild plantain (Plantago major) is an important medicinal plant. Symptoms suggestive of phytoplasma diseases were observed in infected plantain plants in Serbia. A new disease on P. major has symptoms of reduced leaf size, leaf reddening and crinkling, and occasionally rolling of flowers and early drying up. This disease was found first on the plantain plantation in Pancevo locality, but later has been found in some other localities in Serbia (Kovin, Vrdnik). Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis of amplification products of 1.2 kb, obtained in nested PCR with R16F2n/R16R2 primer pair after amplification with P1/16S-Sr primers, in 24 from 26 symptomatic plants indicated the presence of phytoplasma from the 16SrXII-A subgroup. Plantain plants collected from all three affected localities in Serbia were determined to be hosts of this phytoplasma. This is the first report of the natural occurrence of Stolbur phytoplasma in cultivated and wild P. major in Serbia.

SUMMARY The root patterns of Rumex palustris (Sm.), Rumex acetosa (L.) and Plantago major (L.) ssp. major, three species occurring in the river forelands, were studied in experimentally waterlogged or drained compacted soils and compared with specimens growing in drained loosely packed-soils as a control. A modified method for endoscopy in root boxes was developed. The species studied showed different patterns of root development as a result of soil waterlogging or compaction. R. palustris was the least sensitive to waterlogged soils, as shown by the formation of new, morphologically distinctive roots; R. acetosa was the most sensitive and P. major had an intermediate response. With respect to soil compaction P. major was the least affected species, followed by R. acetosa and R. palustris, respectively. The fractional root porosity of these species was studied by using a flow-through system to create hypoxia, a small soil-pore diameter or a combination of both. Hypoxia resulted in a higher root porosity. In both Rumex species small soil-pores inhibited this increase. Contrasting results were found for the porosity of Plantago roots. Results are discussed in relation to the distribution of these species in the field.

The response of Plantago major ssp. pleiosperma plants, grown on nutrient solution in a climate chamber, to a doubling of the ambient atmospheric CO2 concentration was investigated. Total dry matter production was increased by 30 % after 3 weeks of exposure, due to a transient stimulation of the relative growth rate (RGR) during the first 10 days. Thereafter RGR returned to the level of control plants. Photosynthesis, expressed per unit leaf area, was stimulated during the first two weeks of the experiment, thereafter it dropped and nearly reached the level of the control plants. Root respiration was not affected by increased atmospheric CO2 levels, whereas shoot, dark respiration was stimulated throughout the experimental period. Dry matter allocation over leaves stems and roots was not affected by the CO2 level. SLA was reduced by 10%, which can partly be explained by an increased dry matter content of the leaves. Both in the early and later stages of the experiment, shoot respiration accounted for a larger part of the carbon budget in plants grown at elevated atmospheric CO2. Shifts in the total carbon budget were mainly due to the effects on shoot respiration. Leaf growth accounted for nearly 50 % of the C budget at all stages of the experiment and in both treatments.