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Using novel instrumentation from a large national sample, this research note examines respondents who look up answers to factual knowledge questions. Consistent with past work linking outside search to a self-enhancing response style, we show that people who research the answers to knowledge questions also self-report higher levels of political engagement. Moreover, validated vote data indicate that higher self-reports of registration status and turnout are overreports of the actual behaviors. Finally, we analyze the characteristics of people who engage in outside search and explore whether simple warnings are effective at reducing this behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Political knowledge is central to understanding citizens' engagement with politics. Yet, as surveys are increasingly conducted online, participants' ability to search the web may undermine the validity of factual knowledge measures. Recent research shows this search behavior is common, even when respondents are instructed otherwise. However, we know little about how outside search affects the validity of political knowledge measures. Using a series of experimental and observational studies, we provide consistent evidence that outside search degrades the validity of political knowledge measures. Our findings imply that researchers conducting online surveys need to take steps to discourage and diagnose search engine use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gender-based differences in political knowledge are pervasive in the United States and abroad. Previous research on the source of these differences has focused on resource differentials or instrumentation, with scholars arguing either that the gender gap is real and intractable, or that it is an artifact of the way the concept is measured. Our study differs from past work by showing that (1) male-female differences in political knowledge persist even when knowledge is measured with recommended practices, but that (2) knowledge gaps can be ameliorated. Across laboratory, survey, and natural experiments, we document how exposure to information diminishes gender-based differences in political knowledge. The provision of facts reduces-and often eliminates-the gender gap in political knowledge on questions covering a range of topics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Survey researchers worry about the quality of data produced by online surveys. One concern is that respondents might cheat on performance questions, such as political knowledge, invalidating their responses. Yet, existing evidence is unclear about the prevalence of cheating, and scholars lack a validated method for coping with the problem. In this paper, we demonstrate that such cheating behavior varies considerably by sample and provide some evidence that it is motivated by self-deceptive enhancement. We experimentally test a variety of methods for reducing cheating and find that common methods, such as timers, are not the most effective approach. By contrast, a commitment mechanism, in which respondents affirm their choice not to cheat, is more efficacious. Although cheating in online surveys can distort estimates of knowledge and decrease the validity of the measure, there are methods for coping with this problem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Political knowledge is a central concept in the study of public opinion and political behavior. Yet what the field collectively believes about this construct is based on dozens of studies using different indicators of knowledge. We identify two theoretically relevant dimensions: a temporal dimension that corresponds to the time when a fact was established and a topical dimension that relates to whether the fact is policy-specific or general. The resulting typology yields four types of knowledge questions. In an analysis of more than 300 knowledge items from late in the first decade of the 2000s, we examine whether classic findings regarding the predictors of knowledge withstand differences across types of questions. In the case of education and the mass media, the mechanisms for becoming informed operate differently across question types. However, differences in the levels of knowledge between men and women are robust, reinforcing the importance of including gender-relevant items in knowledge batteries. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]