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Resumen Las fuentes demográficas presentan algunos sesgos de información en cuanto al registro del trabajo femenino, dado que en los censos de población se omitieron las ocupaciones de muchas mujeres. Varios autores han explicado este fenómeno como un descuido por parte de los empadronadores que privilegiaron las actividades de los jefes de familia varones. Debido a los silencios que presentan estos documentos, utilizamos la triangulación de fuentes con la finalidad de corroborar si efectivamente estas mujeres se encontraban desempleadas u ocultaron sus empleos por alguna razón. En este artículo esbozamos una alternativa para abordar el problema de la omisión de empleo de las mujeres solteras, al tomar como base el Censo de la Ciudad de México de 1790. Para ello, identificamos cinco aspectos que resaltan los motivos por los que se omitieron sus ocupaciones: la situación doméstica, los empleos ocultos, las estrategias de subsistencia, las condiciones de salud y las conductas delictivas. Argumentamos que el empleo femenino no fue omitido al azar por los empadronadores sino que es el reflejo de la percepción de la mujer en la sociedad colonial, ya que muchas de ellas trabajaban y su empleo les garantizaba su independencia económica. Por tal motivo, resaltamos que deben explorarse las condiciones de las ocupaciones no registradas porque la imagen del trabajo femenino estará incompleta si no advertimos este fenómeno. Abstract Demographic sources present some information gaps regarding the registration of female work because the occupations of many women were omitted in the population censuses. Several authors have explained this phenomenon as an oversight on the part of the census-takers, who privileged the activities of male heads of households. Due to the silences presented by these documents, we used the triangulation of sources, to corroborate whether these women were unemployed or hid their jobs for some reason. In this article we propose an alternative to address the problem of the omission of employment of single women, based on the Census of Mexico City of 1790. For this, we identify five aspects that highlight the reason their occupations were omitted: domestic situation, hidden jobs, subsistence strategies, health conditions, and criminal behaviors. We argue that female employment was not randomly omitted by the census-takers, but rather is the reflection of the perception of women in colonial society, since many of them worked and their employment guaranteed their economic independence. For this reason, we emphasize that the conditions of unregistered occupations should be explored, because the image of female work will be incomplete if we do not take note of this phenomenon. Resumo As fontes demográficas apresentam alguns vieses de informação quanto ao registro do trabalho feminino, visto que nos censos populacionais foram omitidas as ocupações de muitas mulheres. Diversos autores explicaram esse fenômeno como um descuido dos recenseadores, uma vez que privilegiavam a atuação dos chefes de família masculinos. Devido aos silêncios que esses documentos apresentam, utilizamos a triangulação de fontes, a fim de corroborar se essas mulheres estavam de fato desempregadas ou esconderam o emprego por algum motivo. Neste artigo, delineamos uma alternativa para abordar o problema da omissão de emprego de mulheres solteiras, com base no Censo da Cidade do México de 1790. Para isso, identificamos cinco aspectos que destacam os motivos pelos quais sus ocupações foram omitidas: situação doméstica, empregos ocultos, estratégias de subsistência, condições de saúde e comportamentos criminosos. Argumentamos que o emprego feminino não foi omitido aleatoriamente pelos recenseadores, mas sim um reflexo da percepção das mulheres na sociedade colonial, uma vez que muitas delas trabalhavam e o seu emprego garantia a sua independência econômica. Por esse motivo, ressaltamos que as condições das ocupações não registradas devem ser exploradas, pois a imagem do trabalho feminino ficará incompleta se não percebermos esse fenômeno.

Objetivo. Conocer el grado de satisfacción o de Felicidad Urbana de la población universitaria de último semestre, residente en las Áreas Metropolitanas de las ciudades núcleo de Bucaramanga y Cúcuta. Método. Inductivo-racional. El modelo de investigación se realizó con base en los índices internacionales de: Bienestar Pluridimensional, Calidad de Vida, Felicidad Interna Bruta y Mejor Bienestar de Vida. De los indicadores colombianos de Felicidad Urbana tomaron: Índice Felicidad Nacional del Departamento Nacional de Planeación, Índice de Felicidad Integral de la ciudad de Medellín e Índice de Felicidad Urbana de la ESAP de Antioquia. El estudio se realiza según el método de análisis estadístico multivariado, con un nivel de confianza del 97% y un margen de error del 5%. Se aplicaron 440 cuestionarios a estudiantes de último semestre universitario, de los principales centros de formación profesional localizados en el Área Metropolitana de las ciudades núcleo de Bucaramanga y Cúcuta. Resultados. Los jóvenes universitarios de último semestre del Área Metropolitana de Bucaramanga poseen una felicidad urbana, en un rango de evaluación de 1 a 5, del 3,55. Los principales factores que incidieron en la respuesta son el buen equipamiento de ciudad, la insatisfacción de los futuros profesionales con la clase política, la regular gestión de los gobiernos locales y la escasa participación comunitaria. Aportes de la investigación. El estudio brinda aportes de Política Económica y de Ciencia Política a los gobiernos municipales de las ciudades núcleo de Bucaramanga y Cúcuta, sobre los factores que influyen en el bienestar general, en las expectativas futuras de condiciones de vida y de Felicidad Urbana en jóvenes universitarios, con el fin de tomar acciones que permitan reducir las migraciones calificadas, mejorar la eficiencia del gasto público en equipamiento de ciudad y promover el desarrollo local a partir de la retención de sus jóvenes talento. Objective. To know the degree of satisfaction or urban happiness of the university population in the last semester, resident in the metropolitan areas of the core cities of Bucaramanga and Cúcuta. Method. Inductive-rational. The research model was carried out based on the international indices of: Pluridimensional Well-being, Quality of Life, Gross Internal Happiness and Better Life Well-being. From the Colombian urban happiness indicators, the following were taken: National Happiness Index of the National Planning Department, Integral Happiness Index of the city of Medellín and Urban Happiness Index of the ESAP of Antioquia. The study was carried out according to the multivariate statistical analysis method, with a confidence level of 97% and a margin of error of 5%. 440 questionnaires were applied to students in the last semester of the university, from the main vocational training centers located in the metropolitan area of the core cities of Bucaramanga and Cúcuta. Results. Young university students in the last semester of the metropolitan area of Bucaramanga have urban happiness, in an evaluation range of 1 to 5, of 3.55. The main factors that influenced the response are the good equipment of the city, the dissatisfaction of future professionals with the political class, the regular management of local governments and the scarce community participation. Research Contributions. The study provides Economic Policy and Political Science contributions to the municipal governments of the core cities of Bucaramanga and Cúcuta, on the factors that influence general well-being, future expectations of living conditions and happiness urbanization in young university students, in order to take actions to reduce qualified migrations, improve the efficiency of public spending on city facilities and promote local development based on the retention of its young talent.

In this paper, we present the rationale and the design of "Vivre / Leben / Vivere" (VLV), a large interdisciplinary survey looking at the life and health conditions of individuals who are aged 65 and older and living in Switzerland. VLV is of the third survey of a repeated cross-sectional study, previously conducted in 1979 and 1994 in two French-speaking areas of Switzerland (the cantons of Geneva and Valais). Launched in 2011, VLV extends the original design to additional German and Italian-speaking areas and targets a sample of 4 200 individuals. Quantitative data are collected by means of two questionnaires and a life history calendar, assessing current resources in multiple spheres of the individuals' life (e.g. household conditions, physical and psychological health, social relations, participation, and values) and their accumulation across the life course. The objectives of VLV are twofold: first it aims to provide an updated view of life and health conditions of the population aged 65 and older in Switzerland, with a major concern in assessing diversity and inequalities. Second, VLV aims to compare these conditions to those observed in 1979 and 1994; hence, it aims providing means to question the sustainability of the positive trends, reported in the previous surveys. VLV is a rare opportunity in Europe to acquire exhaustive and cardinal knowledge about the heterogeneity of the life conditions of the aged and their changes over the past 30 years.

Ortega Y. Gasset in his book The Mission of the University says that knowledge is the biggest achievement of the human being. Today's society is that of the third wave, when school and university are the main institutions of social fabric. Looking from a sociological perspective, education is the determinator of social mobility and achievement in a micro and macro context in a globalised world. The Republic of Macedonia is a small Balkan country that is passing through a long period of transition, where unemployment, vulnerability and social exclusion are typical elements of social reality. The number people living below the national poverty line increased from 4% of the population in 1991 to 20% in 1996. According to State Statistical Office data, in 2008 the percentage of poor people in the Republic of Macedonia was 28.7%, which is more than a fourth of the whole population. The survey findings of research done in 2010 (UNDP) show that 40% of respondents said that their financial situation was worse than average. The empirical part of this study is based on a survey (546 respondents) done in June-July 2012 in three regions inhabited mostly by the Albanian population, aiming to give a real picture about correlation between two indicators, education and life conditions.

One of the most current issues in the economic debate is that of the productive vocation of the country: to achieve development based on the exploitation of natural resources or industrialization; however, the basis of the chosen option is usually more theoretical than empirical. This work seeks to establish the relationships between “primarization”, industrialization and living standards in Peru, between 1950 and 1997, based on the available economic information. Its main conclusion is that, in that period, in Peru there was an inverse relationship between the “primarization” of economic activities and the standard of living or income of the population. For each additional point of participation in extractive or primary activities, per capita consumption worsened by 2.6%, salaries by 5.4% and salaries by 7.4%. On the contrary, for each additional percentage point of the manufacturing sector per capita consumption increased by 4.2%, salaries by 10.6% and wages by 15.5%. Uno de los temas mas actuales del debate economico es el de la vocacion productiva del pais: lograr el desarrollo con base en la explotacion de los recursos naturales o de la industrializacion; sin embargo, el fundamento de la opcion elegida suele ser mas teorico que empirico. Este trabajo busca establecer las relaciones entre la primarizacion, la industrializacion y los niveles de vida en el Peru, entre 1950 y 1997, a partir de la informacion economica disponible. Su principal conclusion es que, en ese periodo, en el Peru existio una relacion inversa entre la primarizacion de las actividades economicas y el nivel de vida o el ingreso de la poblacion. Por cada punto adicional de participacion en actividades extractivas o primarias empeoraron el consumo per capita en el 2.6%, los sueldos en el 5.4% y los salarios en el 7.4%. Por el contrario, por cada punto porcentual adicional del sector manufacturero el consumo per capita aumento en el 4.2%, los sueldos lo hicieron en el 10.6% y los salarios, en el 15.5%. Keywords: Peru, primarization, industrial policy, living standards, value creation, per capita income.