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This article helps understand why locations close to strategic infrastructure to transport illegal drugs (seaports, airports, highways, and US ports of entry along the Mexico-US border) or to increase income (pipelines) experience different levels of violence due to DTOs operations. Our theory breaks down the impact of the geographical distance to these facilities on violence into two effects. The first effect is produced by the level of (violent) competition among DTOs, measured by the number of DTOs employing violence. We report that greater proximity to the U.S. ports of entry along the Mexico-US border, ports, and airports furthers the number of competitors, and such increase boosts violence. The second effect shapes the intensity of competition among DTOs. Reductions in the costs of excluding competing DTOs from using the facility could trigger greater confrontation among DTOs. We confirm the importance of this second effect in relation to ports and the U.S. ports of entry along the Mexico-US border. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article advances the historiography of port cities, waterfront trade unionism and imperial solidarity by comparing two distant places that, despite their colonial connections, are rarely juxtaposed: Britain and Australia. It investigates the relationship between the metropole and the periphery via the Great Dock Strike of 1889 in London (a 5-week dispute that ended in victory for the dockers) and the Australian Maritime Strike of 1890 (a 12-week strike that ended in defeat for the workers). This research shows how the responses to the strikes from the other side of the world reflected the characteristics of port cities and their waterfront workers. They were also largely determined by three neglected themes - the extent of colonial ties, the uses of the new telegraph network, and the impact of trade cycles - and how these themes influenced each other. The first theme develops and complicates Bernard Porter's argument that Britons were indifferent towards imperial affairs. On the one hand, this article confirms his position by showing the asymmetry of imperial relations between the outward-looking Australians and the mainly inward-looking Britons. On the other, it demonstrates how imperial connections led to solidarity, and how Britain's working-class leaders embodied an elitist imperial mindset. In doing so, this article draws new parallels between Britain's working-class leaders and colonial administrators. Despite their different roles and educational backgrounds, both groups - imbued with a sense of imperial superiority - demonstrated a similarly paternalistic approach in their work overseas. Therefore, imperial solidarity in port cities is a prism through which the prevalence and impact of the British imperial ethos - a far wider subject - can be illuminated and assessed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The theme of networks is at the forefront of studies on plural policing, but concepts, typologies and theories focus more on collaborations than on conflicts. Based on a case study of the largest port complex in South America, the Brazilian port of Santos, this article proposes a theoretical framework for understanding capital struggles in security networks. It explores how struggles emerge from dynamics in which the network is at stake, such as membership and principles, or the forms of capital within it, which are claimed, contested, disputed or abdicated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyzes the effects of the acquisition of the Port of Piraeus by the Chinese shipping operator COSCO in July 2016 on the organization of container traffic in Europe. Using real‐time container ship positions provided by vessel tracking systems between 2015 and 2019, we study the impact of the privatization of the Greek port on its attractiveness and on that of competing ports for the ships of the various operators, and more particularly of COSCO. Difference‐in‐difference estimates suggest that the number of container ship calls to the Port of Piraeus has increased following its privatization, but that this increase in attractiveness corresponds mainly to vessels operated by COSCO with a capacity of more than 3000 twenty‐foot equivalent units, and in particular to the largest of them. We do not identify any crowding out effect between operators in Piraeus: the use of Piraeus by the vessels of other operators remains relatively unchanged. The privatization of Piraeus seems to have imposed the Greek port as COSCO's transhipment hub for the European market without this being to the detriment of ports in any other particular European area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Mundra Port on the Gulf of Kutch in western India is one of India's largest port projects today. This article takes the port-circulated narrative of the coast being a natural harbor as its starting point, to show how fresh water was central to official maritime projects until the early postcolonial period. Conserving mangroves and freshwater creeks was not antithetical to maritime ports but part of the same administrative project. Political and infrastructural shifts from the river to the tide naturalized the erasure of coastal fresh water and transformed the coast into a singularly tidal space, creating the conditions for the development of a large-scale, high-technology shipping port. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Through a focus on an abandoned harbor development project in Tuticorin in southeastern India, this article interrogates the factors shaping port development in the first quarter of the twentieth century. Tuticorin—which at the time was the second-busiest port in the Madras presidency—had emerged as the likeliest site for an ambitious port development scheme, thanks largely to its intimate relationship with both Colombo and the plantations of Ceylon just across the Gulf of Mannar. Within just a few years, however, this project would be abandoned abruptly after being declared unrealistic and impractical. What made Tuticorin's development appear almost inevitable at one point, only to be deemed completely unviable a couple of decades later? This article uses the rise and fall of port development schemes at Tuticorin in the early decades of the twentieth century to examine wider developments in the colonial economy and to interrogate the infrastructural networks and environmental forces underpinning both the hopes for port modernization and their eventual success or failure around the Indian Ocean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focusing on 23 greening measures, this paper systematically compares the greening efforts of the busiest container and cargo ports in the United States (US) and the European Union (EU). We move beyond accounts for general environmental differences between the EU and the US to examine how specific environmental decisions are shaped by the effects of regulatory characteristics in each region. We identify systematic variation in number and type of port greening measures adopted in the two regions. We demonstrate that differences in the number and type of measures adopted reflect the level of policy making with local policy making playing a more important role in the US compared to the EU, thus proposing a pathway through which the form of regulatory approach could influence content and extent of regulation. The EU adopts regulation that is broader in scope while US ports are more likely to address problems affecting local populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study focuses on tracing the history of the ports in the eastern Red Sea since ancient times. It documents the history of the most important of these ports and the challenges in determining their locations. It also traces their impact on the Arabs' dominance over the Red Sea during certain historical periods, and their role in civilizational contact with the northeastern region of the African continent. The study also shows the evolution of Arab maritime capabilities, from the use of leather ships to purchasing ready-made ships, until they reached the point of manufacturing their own ships. It highlights some aspects of civilizational and cultural communication between the western region of the Arabian Peninsula and the northeastern region of Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

If one were to chart the momentous transformations that South Asia witnessed in the twentieth century, the sea and its coasts would be an essential cipher. The geopolitical, socio-legal, and economic transformations over the past century in South Asia are a seaborne phenomenon, among others. This backdrop often remains suppressed when sketching its contemporary history. As this afterword details, the special section "Port Environments in South Asia" shows that as ports and littoral societies receded from scholarly focus, the relationship among state, market, and the ocean intensified at these edge spaces. Without careful attention to the recomposition of this relationship over the twentieth century, it is difficult to make sense of the current geopolitical consolidation between India and China in the Indian Ocean. From coasts, brackish backwaters, and dynamic littorals, the essays in this themed section open new ways of understanding the reconstitution of power in Asian port environments in a climate-changed world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the current state of maritime transport in Bulgaria with the idea of finding out what is happening in this segment of the transport market, given the serious impact on the dynamics of its development that environmental factors have had in recent years. The aim of the author is to trace the cargo turnover that passed through the Bulgarian seaports and to identify the changes occurring as a result of the pandemic and the subsequent military actions on the territory of Ukraine. The development of Bulgaria's maritime transport is associated with decision-making to cover the restoration of the fleet under the Bulgarian flag, the investment activity in the national port infrastructure and the stabilization of the geopolitical situation in the Black Sea region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the evaluation of delay factors at Nigeria's Apapa seaports. The specific study objective was to evaluate the various delay factors at Nigerian seaports and the specific delay factors affecting the Apapa seaports. The primary method of data collection was via questionnaire application and Taro Yamane's population sampling method while results were analyzed using the ANOVA statistics. The findings revealed a statistically significant effect of port delay factors at the seaports on national and economic output. The study concludes that port delay factors at the seaports significantly affect economic activities in Nigeria and there should be the creation of more evacuation corridors at the seaports to facilitate prompt service delivery and improve the country's ease of doing business among others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of the article is to review in a general way the history of the transversal road towards the Central Coast of Oaxaca, Mexico, throughout the nineteenth century, from the logic of regional history. The text shows two general moments in which the port of Huatulco, initially, and Puerto Ángel, later, were the points of articulation of the road, many times as part of interoceanic communication projects. None of the specific projects materialized, due to various factors, especially political and economic, which can be identified in the text. However, this look shows an extremely significant role of the road project in the projections of a communications system in that period. One of the main contributions of the text is precisely to explore from a critical perspective, distant from the conventional centralist vision. Among the collections consulted are the Hemeroteca Nacional de México, the Hemeroteca Manuel Brioso y Candiani, Hemeroteca Digital de la Biblioteca Nacional de España, Biblioteca Fray Francisco de Burgoa and the Mapoteca Manuel Orozco y Berra. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ports play a vital role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and a broad range of other tranportation-related environmental impacts. This article examines the critical elements of an effective environmental policy frame-work for ports that could be considered a "gold standard." An exploratory analysis is conducted by delving into the academic literature and analyzing existing international and regional policy frameworks for ports. Fifteen in-terviews with subject-matter experts were conducted to identify sustaina-bility initiatives of two case study ports: Rotterdam and Long Beach. The article extends a previously developed framework for ports developed by Christodoulou et al., which identifies the following spheres of influence: the ports themselves, the role of ports in supporting shipping and inland transportation, and the geographical area surrounding the port. The current study extends the framework from its initial focus on GHG emission reduc-tion-related initiatives to other environmental sustainability initiatives un-dertaken by ports. It is clear that a "gold standard" requires a proactive and participatory approach to sustainability initiatives for the power itself and effective processes for collaboration with the shipping sector, inland trans-portation, and the geographic area surrounding ports to enable the port to be a constructive partner in all its spheres of influence and for the frame-work to evolve over time to continue to improve on an ongoing basis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent excavations of Tel Yafo (Jaffa), Israel, underscore its role as an historically important Mediterranean port. In 2014, the Ioppa Maritima Project conducted a geological investigation determining that from ca. 5000–2000 years BP, a small estuarine system existed east and north of Tel Yafo that could have served as a harbour. The marine re-entrant formed through sea-level rise and flooding of a small valley, and the stream mouth was probably also partially blocked by coastal sands. Sediment aggradation, wetland development, and anthropogenic activity largely filled the embayment leaving only a depression east of Tel Yafo in the area of Bloomfield Stadium and Groningen Park. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ports play a critical role in the global oil trade market, and those with significant influence have an implicit advantage in global oil transportation. In order to offer a thorough understanding of port influences, the research presented in this paper analyzes the evolution of the dominance mechanisms underlying port influence diffusion. Our study introduces a port influence diffusion model to outline global oil transport patterns. It examines the direct and indirect influence of ports using worldwide vessel trajectory data from 2009 to 2016. Port influences are modelled via diffusion patterns and the resulting ports influenced. The results of the case study applied to specific ports show different patterns and influence evolutions. Four main port influence trends are identified. The first one is that ports that have a strong direct influence over their neighboring ports materialize a directly influenced area. Second, geographical distance still plays an important role in the whole port influence patterns. Third, it clearly appears that, the higher the number of directly influenced ports, the higher the probability of having an influence pattern, as revealed by the diffusion process. The peculiarity of this approach is that, in contrast to previous studies, global maritime trade is analyzed in terms of direct and indirect influences and according to oil trade flows. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The maritime sector is a vital component of the global economy. Its international nature supersedes state boundaries and any disruption in its operations could have consequent and collateral global effects, affecting the socio-economic wellbeing of regions, states and peoples. The increasing adoption of digitalisation in the sector, primarily increases efficiency, minimize cost and maximise benefit, while improving safety, simultaneously introduces a new cyber threat landscape. The attack surface has broadened further due to the COVID-19 pandemic, as recent, high-profile cyber attacks to shipping companies have indicated. Cybersecurity is not limited to technology but involves people and business processes. Hence, to mitigate the security risk introduced by cyber threat actors, the industry, like any other, should initially focus on identifying its most critical assets and then adopt risk mitigation measures, spreading from legislative initiatives to company-specific technology solutions. Industry-led initiatives should promote the adoption of cyber-related policies and mechanisms that focus on business continuity. It should be the role of international bodies, classification societies and national authorities to ensure compliance and full implementation of these measures. This paper adopts a System of Systems Analysis to carry out a vulnerability assessment of port and ship ecosystem, while providing insights on the role of the aforementioned entities. Our analysis decomposes the industry's major assets; ports and ships, to specific subcomponents which are used as the basis of the vulnerability assessment. According to our findings, this approach highlights that the majority of these subcomponents; ports and ships, are increasingly vulnerable to cyber attacks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study addresses the highly topical issue of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on port logistics. The impacts are reflected in all three pillars of sustainable operations and development that port logistics should pursue. The economic impact is strong and is reflected in the extremely high transport prices, the accessibility of transport, the lengthening of the supply chain, and the reduced liquidity of companies. The social aspect is very important regarding working conditions and workers' roles in ports and logistics service providers (LSPs). The dynamic changes caused by the COVID-19 pandemic also have an impact on the environmental aspect. As supply chains are vulnerable, more attention is paid to the components of time, price, and reliability than greener transportation. This study highlights changes in port logistics due to the COVID-19 pandemic in logistics companies in the northern Adriatic region and covers a specific gap in the understanding of the sustainable adaptations of LSPs in their operations within port logistics. The results enrich the scientific field regarding LSPs to work processes, the digitalization of business processes, and the organization of logistics chains. The results can be used to develop new sustainable business models for port logistics and port governance, as some researchers have already called for because port logistics too often pursue the economic goals of the fastest and cheapest logistics process. At the same time, social and environmental aspects are somewhat neglected. The changes are particularly pronounced in critical situations, such as those typical of the COVID-19 pandemic. The study was conducted as part of the project about green port development with external research funding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Economic costs due to operational downtime and wave overtopping under the RCP 8.5 scenario are evaluated at 7 Chilean ports. Wave statistics for a historical period (1985–2004), mid-century (2026–2045), and end-of-century projections (2081–2100) are computed with a Pacific-wide model, forced by wind fields from six General Circulation Models. Offshore waves are then downscaled to each port, where a proxy of downtime is computed by comparing wave heights with vessel berthing criteria. The difference in downtime between the historical and future projections is attributed to climate change. Results show that some ports would reduce and others increase downtime for mid-century projections due to local effects. However, by the end-of-century, all ports would experience a reduction in downtime. Additionally, by mid-century, overtopping would increase in northern ports as a combination of extreme waves and sea-level rise (SLR), while in southern ports, it is expected to be slightly reduced. By the end-of century, overtopping would increase in the whole region, mainly driven by SLR. However, overtopping is significantly altered by coseismic uplift/subsidence that may occur during the design-life of coastal works. Finally, a few practical suggestions aimed atimproving infrastructure management and operational conditions at the analyzed ports are outlined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite efforts to maintain supply chains unaltered as a result of the Covid-19 pandemic, statistics published after the second quarter (Q2) of 2020 have confirmed a drop in maritime traffic in European ports. Furthermore, the evolution of the pandemic indicates that stabilisation of traffic at levels prior to the Q1 of 2020 may take years. Port authorities in Europe, in an overall context of landlord port governance, are already being challenged, due to the need to ensure the provision of port technical services (mooring, pilotage and towage). In addition, the cost adaptability of these services to the current situation could be confronted by the European legal framework that demands transparency and proportionality in port rates in order to provide an effective cost of services. This paper analyses the impacts of Covid-19 on European ports, first by quantifying traffic drop after Q2 of 2020 and then calculating its effects on the cost of port technical services, in a general context of lack of flexibility in the cost structures of private providers. Due to this ongoing situation, a rise in rates, allowed by the port authorities, could mean that the prices of port services are not aligned with effective costs, along with loss of competitiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent decades, maritime transport demand has increased along with world population and global trades. This is associated with higher pollution levels, including the emissions of GHG and other polluting gases. Ports are important elements within maritime transport and contribute themselves to pollutant emissions. This paper aims to offer a comprehensive yet technical review of the latest related technologies, explaining and covering aspects that link ports with emissions, i.e., analyzing, monitoring, assessing, and mitigating emissions in ports. This has been achieved through a robust scientific analysis of very recent and significant research studies, to offer an up-todate and reliable overview. Results show the correlation between emissions and port infrastructures, and demonstrate how proper interventions can help with reducing pollutant emissions and financial costs as well, in ports and for maritime transportation in general. Besides, this review also wishes to propose new ideas for future research: new future experimental studies might spin-off from it, and perhaps port Authorities might be inspired to experiment and implement dedicated technologies to improve their impact on environment and sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ever-growing impacts of climate change such as extreme heat, more frequent heavy precipitation events, intensifying tropical revolving storms, and sea level rise continue to pose major threats to India's critical maritime infrastructure. As the country moves towards its ambition of becoming a leading Blue Economy of the world, a wide range of initiatives have been taken by the central and state governments to expand the maritime sector with a specific focus on the transport sector. However, there is little emphasis being paid on protecting the existing and planned seaport infrastructure against the deleterious impacts of climate change. None of the major ports in India have a dedicated climate action strategy and climate adaptation finds no mention in the policy documents pertaining to the maritime transport sector. In this context, this paper aims to highlight the need for a comprehensive, holistic and dynamic climate change adaptation strategy for India's port infrastructure including support infrastructure and supply chains. The adaptation strategy, at the individual ports' level and the national level, must be preceded by rigorous risk assessment studies to identify and prioritise the major challenges arising from climate change at the local level. The paper draws upon international best practices in climate risk assessments and adaptation measures to provide a way forward for Indian ports. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plastic pollution is a major environmental issue that affects coasts all around the world. Many studies point out the importance of a better management of this type of pollution. In this pioneering study, we have analyzed the distribution of macro-, meso-, and microplastics along the coast of Asturias (southwest Bay of Biscay, Spain). Significant correlation analysis suggests that mesoplastics are produced in situ by fragmentation of macroplastics. Differences between groups of beaches revealed the importance of maritime ports and fishing activities as sources of macroplastics and likely of microplastics as well. Another source of microplastics could be atmospheric deposition, especially for fibers. Multiple regression model allowed to confirm the utility of beach services like cleaning and trash bins to control macroplastics. These results emphasize the need of an integral treatment of marine plastic pollution involving fishers and maritime ports, as well as the importance of providing beach services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article will present the results of a qualitative research into organized crime in the Italian port system. It is a pioneering attempt to assess an extensive and diachronic perspective on the presence and activities of organized crime groups into the Italian seaports in order to provide a systematic analytical map through the analysis of institutional law enforcement reports. The article attempts to shed light on an overlooked topic, analytically relevant insofar as it examines OCGs's activities in a specific and particular space representing an opportunity to obtain profits and social connections. Moreover, it analyses OCGs tendency to be involved in legal and illegal businesses, their ability to persist in space and time, and their skills in moving abroad. The results show that organized crime activities are permanent and largely widespread in the main harbours all over the country, particularly in Ancona, Cagliari, Genova and Gioia Tauro; organized crime groups operate mostly in illegal business and in particular in illicit trafficking of drugs, cigarettes and counterfeit goods; the Italian mafia 'ndrangheta seems to be able to persist in space and time within several seaports. The study shows that simultaneous processes of specialization in illegal markets and diversification in seaports are ongoing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This investigation aims to identify the main characteristics of international empirical studies on quality management planning in cargo handling through ports, from the perspective of performance evaluation. It is a qualitative study, with an exploratory-descriptive objective, in which research-action research using the Knowledge Development Process-Constructivist (ProKnow-C) as a research strategy, in which primary data were collected and secondary, bibliographic procedure. The results are presented: (a) the network of authors, comprising twenty-nine (29) clusters; (b) bibiographic coupling, distributed in 19 clusters; (c) prominent authors, being "Bichou and Gray"; (d) the most cited article, entitled "A logistics and supply chain management approach to port performance measurement"; (e) the prominent journal, "Maritime Policy and Management"; (f) the network of research countries, the United States, Spain and Italy; (g) the key words, "ports and harbors", "planning", "port management" and "service quality; (h) the construction of tools for the assessment of port performance followed by Servqual; (i) the network of universities, in which he highlighted the connections formed by the Business College of Athens (BCA) Center for Maritime Economics and Logistics (MEL), Center for International Shipping and Logistic; (j) the sphere in which the study took place, with the "Unidentified and / or theoretical study" being the most representative followed by the public sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ports constitute crucial intermodal nodes in the freight and passenger transport network as well as important border control points. Therefore, their security, and efficient operation are of paramount importance not only because of their critical transport functions but also because of their specific role, as control points, in the national, regional and global security Port security assessments provide the foundation for the effective implementation of the maritime security measures at port /port facilities. There are different types of risk and important factors which affect risk assessment. The latter can range from very simple to very complex assessment using a broad set of tools and information. The main key to part security risk assessment is choosing the right approach to provide the needed information without overworking the problem. This paper aims to focus on the process of port port facility risk-based security assessment. In this study, a descriptive methodology will be used in order to analyze the basic concents related to maritime security and risk assessment. In addition, available risk assessment approaches used in this field will be evaluated, with an analytical vision to describe the controlling parameters in these approaches. The structure, salient features and merits different approaches will be introduced and discussed. Furthermore, a comparative analysis will be conducted among the selected approaches highlighting and identifying the most important parameters and criteria used to evaluate risks in each method. As a main finding of this study, it is clear that the differences in parameters included in the selected approaches affect their potential capabilities and suggest that an exhaustive investigation be made to study how effective each parameter is. More importantly, it addresses the urgent need for a more comprehensive maritime security risk-based methodology that integrates the advantages and overcomes the shortcomings of the currently used approaches [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Harbor deepening projects in the southeastern United States illuminate a global phenomenon: navigable rivers and coastal estuaries have been dredged to new depths as port authorities and governments compete to accommodate and benefit from new generations of massive oceangoing ships. This urbanized region has dozens of ports situated in estuaries and deltas where major rivers meet the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico. It is also home to the majority of U.S. inland federal waterways, significant cargo traffic, and remarkable cultural and ecological diversity. Moving enormous volumes of underwater sediment is as much a social, economic, and political phenomenon as an intervention in hydrological and geomorphological processes. Therefore, dredging demands an analytical framework that bridges disciplines and spatial scales. Putting dredging research into conversation with scholarship on global shipping, logistics, and port development, we call for an analytical framework that draws upon political ecology and geosocial theory. We use this framework to examine large harbor deepening projects near Savannah, Jacksonville, Mobile, and New Orleans. Each project has been rationalized in terms of accommodating the megaships transiting an expanded Panama Canal and, more generally, linking local and regional economic development to global supply chains. An expanded and comparative framework reveals the geographical scale and variegated politics that characterize navigation dredging today. This article is categorized under:Human Water > Methods [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Five cases of ports in Japan and Indonesia that have subsided by a metre or more were analysed. The findings suggest that there are no unsurmountable technological, cost-benefit, financial and social limits to the progressive raising of these ports, at least for the magnitude of climate-induced sea-level rise expected during the 21st century. In Indonesia observed adaptation is a sequential process: only part of the port is raised at one time, allowing port operations to continue elsewhere and spreading costs in time. Jumps in unit costs are apparent as the elevation height increases. In addition, the possibility of sea-level rise triggering innovative changes in port design to lower costs (e.g., a move to floating ports) is being considered. For traditional ports to upgrade by up to 1 metre, unit costs are found to be somewhere between 50–360 USD/m3 rise (not including the cost of piling). Nevertheless, such adaptation costs would represent a significant burden and adaptation is often reactive rather than proactive, leading to significant damage costs, as in the case of Hurricane Katrina's impact on Gulf Coast Ports. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In coastal regions of the U.S. maritime transportation system, compelling reasons exist for implementing measures for climate change adaptation. As the effects of climate change amplify the impacts of natural hazards, a critical aspect of the nation's overall resiliency includes the ability of the maritime and coastal sectors to recover effectively from external shocks and to adapt to changing environmental conditions in order to continue to provide the services the nation relies upon for economic viability and homeland security. This requires adaptation for physical infrastructure as well as organizational, operational, and community elements throughout the maritime transportation system. This paper provides a literature review of port climate adaptation approaches, which highlights the established need and opportunities for collaboration among coastal stakeholders to implement climate adaptation in port communities. The current lack of federal support in the United States for climate adaptation in the maritime sector emphasizes the need for novel methods and approaches to facilitate adaptation at individual port and regional levels. A case study from the port community of Hampton Roads, Virginia provides an example of the time and effort dedicated to stakeholder collaboration to encourage local understanding of climate risks in order to facilitate successful adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Port infrastructure is critical to the world's economy and has seen major expansion over the last few decades. In the future there are likely to be further demands for port capacity which will require additional port area while existing ports will need upgrading in response to sea‐level rise to maintain current levels of operability. This analysis considers potential changes to 2050 under four climate‐based scenarios which aim to explore changes in international maritime trade consistent with global temperature increases of 2 °C and 4 °C and the implications of associated sea‐level rise. All scenarios anticipate a significant increase in trade, and a change in distribution across commodities. The demand for port handling areas in 2050 is roughly double to quadruple that of the baseline (2010) across scenarios. The maximum demand occurs under an unmitigated climate and high intensity in commodity movement with a maximum area in 2050 of 5,054km2. The minimum demand (2,510km2) occurs under a scenario of regionalized green energy production and lower material intensity. The total global investment costs for port adaptation to sea‐level rise and provision of new areas are between 223 and 768 billion USD to 2050. These are dominated by the need for new area construction with the adaptation of base year areas to relative sea‐level rise representing a maximum of 6% of total costs globally. Therefore, in addition to adapting existing port areas to sea‐level rise, it is equally or more important to consider provision of new ports. Plain Language Summary: Over the coming decades, the type and amount of trade carried by sea will change, influenced by climate policy as well as other economic factors. Ports will need to respond to these indirect effects of climate change as well as more direct effects of sea‐level rise, while maintaining their efficiency and reliability as part of global trade systems. Key to avoiding bottlenecks and delays is sufficient handling area within the ports. Using available guidance on the handling area needed for different goods, this analysis shows that projected increases in maritime trade mean that significant new port areas will need to be constructed, in addition to adapting existing ports to relative sea‐level rise. The four climate policy‐related trade scenarios analyzed indicate that port areas may need double or even quadruple globally by 2050. Hence, the cost of adapting to relative sea‐level rise is minimal in comparison to that of building new port areas. The need for these new port areas offers an opportunity to build climate‐resilient ports from the outset. Key Points: The climate and associated trade scenarios considered in this analysis show a significant growth in the need for port areas by 2050.Consideration of ports and sea‐level rise currently focusses on impacts and adaptation for existing port areas.The costs of adaptation existing ports to sea‐level rise are minimal when compared to the costs for new port areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The refrigerated ('reefer') container market and cold logistics chains create opportunities and challenges for seaports. This high-value market grows rapidly, but places stringent demands on seaports' logistics processes, infrastructure, and energy provision. This study investigates how port authorities can address challenges and opportunities in this dynamic market environment. While previous research has outlined developments in port governance paradigms and the strategic scope of port authorities, the academic literature still lacks a comprehensive understanding of the policy options available to port authorities to respond to arising challenges and opportunities. This study presents a new dataset of policies, implemented by world's 50 largest container ports, addressing reefer transportation and cold chain logistics. Policy measures are classified according to content, goals, scope and port authority role. The findings from this worldwide comparative analysis illustrate that port authorities routinely pursue facilitating and entrepreneurial policies extending far beyond their traditional 'landlord' responsibilities. There is little evidence of coherent and comprehensive cold chain strategies of port authorities, addressing the logistics, marketing, technology, and sustainability dimensions. Based on the inventory of policies in the reefer segment, this study outlines the general tenets such a strategy should contain as a consideration for policymakers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research note explores the specifics of the Sound Toll Registers as a historical source. It accounts for the shipmasters who sailed into the Baltic but are largely absent from the Sound Toll Registers because they were not attributed to a port. A method of detecting these shipmasters is proposed, together with an explanation as to why this administrative practice developed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many ports and navigation channels around the world suffer from silting and the presence of fluid mud layers, which can cause reductions in nautical depth. In this context, the existence of fluid mud layers makes the definition of the bottom ambiguous because the location of interfaces between water, fluid mud, and consolidated mud is dynamic. The present paper presents an integrated approach to analyzing the fluid mud layers in different port regions of South America and under controlled conditions in a laboratory column. In situ measurements were obtained with acoustic equipment, a chirp sub-bottom profiler and density profiles. The laboratory experiment was operated in a sedimentation column 4.3 m high, and dual-frequency echo sounder and density measurements were used to monitor sedimentation and resuspension events. Concerning the detection of the mud layers through dual-frequency echo sounder measurements, the high frequency return (HF) is associated with the water mud interface (lutocline), and the low frequency return (LF1) is more difficult to interpret. The high frequency recorded the position of the upper layers formed, either by resuspension or by the presence of diluted suspension. The depth measured by the low frequency can be either related to higher densities or associated with a second density gradient observed in the profiles. It is recommended to interpret and visualize the echograms when there is interference in the signal due to suspensions. The combination of techniques to detect and measure the fluid mud layers is a promising approach to empower and develop tools using fluid mud for navigation, with a potential increase in draft, as well as to define critical densities for port and channel areas, for safe navigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]