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Social epidemiology is a relatively newer field of epidemiology that evaluates the socioeconomic distribution and determinants of health and disease and how those factors affect the health of individuals and populations. The explanation of the causal relationships between socioeconomic circumstances, health status, and consequences is a key challenge in social epidemiology. The current study was conducted to analyze the key substantive areas of focus in epidemiology in the sociobiological context. Data were collected electronically using databases such as PubMed, ScienceDirect, Scopus, Google Scholar, and three authorized textbooks to conduct relevant searches. Since the beginning of the history of public health, the relationship between socioeconomic class and health has been a significant study area. The impact which social factors have on both individual and population health is the central and initial question that needs to be addressed in social epidemiology. The recent attention given to this issue using modern epidemiological techniques is a relatively new phenomenon. Social epidemiology's primary goal is to produce fundamental knowledge. Social epidemiology must be necessarily multimethod, interdisciplinary, and broad due to its subject of research.

Abstract Background The emerging viral pandemic worldwide is associated with a novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2). This virus is said to emerge from its epidemic center in Wuhan, China, in 2019. Coronaviruses (CoVs) are single-stranded, giant, enveloped RNA viruses that come under the family of coronaviridae and order Nidovirales which are the crucial pathogens for humans and other vertebrates. Main body Coronaviruses are divided into several subfamilies and genera based on the genomic structure and phylogenetic relationship. The name corona is raised due to the presence of spike protein on the envelope of the virus. The structural and genomic study revealed that the total genome size of SARS-CoV-2 is from 29.8 kb to 29.9 kb. The spike protein (S) is a glycoprotein that attaches to the receptor of host cells for entry into the host cell, followed by the attachment of virus RNA to the host ribosome for translation. The phylogenetic analysis of SARS-CoV-2 revealed the similarity (75–88%) with bat SARS-like coronavirus. Conclusion The sign and symptoms of novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 are also discussed in this paper. The worldwide outbreak and prevention from severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 are overviewed in the present article. The latest variant of coronavirus and the status of vaccines are also overviewed in the present article.

Background: The risk for a first myocardial infarction (MI) in people with diabetes has been shown to be as high as the risk for a new MI in non-diabetic patients with a prior MI. Consequently, risk-reducing statin therapy is recommended for nearly all patients with diabetes 40 years of age or older, regardless of cholesterol level. The purpose of this study was to assess the recommended and real-life use of statins for primary prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) in diabetic patients who develop ASCVD. Methods: In a cross-sectional multicenter study of consecutive patients without previous ASCVD hospitalized with a first MI in 2010-2012, we obtained information on diabetic status, statin use, and cardiovascular risk factors prior to MI. Results: The study population consisted of 1622 patients with first MI (63 % men), 228 of whom had known diabetes before MI. All but three of the diabetic patients were ≥40 years of age. Diabetic patients were older (70 vs 68, p = 0.006), were more often women (43 vs 36 %, p = 0.05) and had a higher prevalence of statin use (47 vs 11 %, p < 0.001) compared with non-diabetic patients. Despite a high risk factor burden, the majority (53 %) of patients with known diabetes was not treated with statins before MI, and there was no relationship between the number of highrisk markers and statin use. Nearly all diabetic patients not treated with statins before first MI had at least one marker of very high cardiovascular risk, including hypertension (71 %), current smoking (37 %), and nephropathy (33 %). Conclusions: Primary prevention with statins had been initiated in less than half of diabetic patients destined for a first MI, despite the presence of one or more markers of very high cardiovascular risk in nearly all. These results highlight an urgent need for optimizing statin therapy and global risk factor control in diabetic patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Guidelines recommend initiating primary prevention with statins to those at highest cardiovascular risk. We assessed the gender-specific implementation and effectiveness of this risk-guided approach.Methods: We identified 1399 consecutive patients without known cardiovascular disease or diabetes hospitalized with a first myocardial infarction (MI) in Denmark. Statin use before MI was assessed, and cardiovascular risk was calculated using SCORE (Systematic COronary Risk Evaluation).Results: Among patients with first MI, 36% were women. Compared with men, they were older (mean 72 vs. 65years) but had a lower estimated risk (median 3.4% vs. 6.7%, SCORE high-risk model in the statin-naïve patients). Statin therapy had been initiated in 12% of women and 10% of men prior to MI. After adding 1.5mmol/L to the total cholesterol concentration of those already on statins, the estimated pre-treatment risk was much lower in women than men (median 3.8% vs. 9.2%, SCORE high-risk model), and only 29% of women would have passed the risk-based treatment threshold defined by the European guidelines (SCORE ≥5%). Estimated risk and statin use correlated directly in men but not in women. Only ~5% of first MI are prevented by the current use of statins in people without diabetes.Conclusion: In people destined for a first MI, statin therapy is uncommon and prevents few events. Lower-risk women receive as much statins as higher risk men. This gender disparity and inefficient targeting of statins to those at highest risk indicate that risk scoring is not widely used in routine clinical practice in Denmark. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Literature on the cost of management of rickets and cost-effectiveness of vitamin D supplementation in preventing rickets is lacking.Methods: This study considered the cost-effectiveness of providing free vitamin D supplementation to pregnant women and children

Abstract Background Maternal and child malnutrition is widely prevalent in low and middle income countries. In Pakistan, widespread food insecurity and malnutrition are the main contributors to poor health, low survival rates and the loss of human capital development. The nutritional status trends among children exhibit a continuous deteriorating with rates of malnutrition exceeding the WHO critical threshold. With the high prevalence of maternal and child malnutrition, it is important to identify effective preventative approaches, especially for reducing stunting in children under-five years of age. The primary aim of this study is to assess the effectiveness of food-based interventions to prevent stunting in children under-five years. Methods A mixed methods study design will be conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of food-based interventions to prevent stunting among children under-five years in districts Thatta and Sujawal, Sindh Province, Pakistan. The study will include cross sectional surveys, a community-based cluster randomized controlled trial and a process evaluation. The study participants will be pregnant women, lactating mothers and children under-five years. The cross-sectional surveys will be conducted with 7360 study participants at baseline and endline. For the randomized control trial, 5000 participants will be recruited and followed monthly for compliance of food-based supplements, dietary diversity, pregnancy outcomes, and maternal and child morbidity and mortality. Anthropometric measurements and hemoglobin levels will be measured at baseline, quarterly and at endline. The interventions will consist of locally produced lipid-based nutrient supplement (Wawamum) for children 6–23 months, micronutrient powders for children 24–59 months, and wheat soya blends for pregnant and lactating mothers. Government lady health workers will deliver interventions to participants. The effectiveness of the project will be measured in terms of the impact of the proposed interventions on stunting, nutritional status, micronutrient deficiencies, and other key indicators of the participants. The process evaluation will assess the acceptability, feasibility and potential barriers of project implementation through focus group discussions, key informant interviews and household surveys. Data analysis will be conducted using STATA version 12. Discussion There is considerable evidence on the effectiveness of food-based interventions in managing stunting in developing countries. However, these studies do not account for the local environmental factors and widespread nutrient deficiencies in Pakistan. These studies are often conducted in controlled environments, where the results cannot be generalized to programs operating under field conditions. The findings of this study will provide sufficient evidence to develop policies and programs aimed to prevent stunting in children 6–59 months and to improve maternal and child health and growth outcomes in poor resource settings. Trial registration NCT02422953 . Registered on April 15, 2015.

ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION: Viral hepatitis is the most common liver disease and constitutes a worldwide problem. It is highly infectious. There is no specific treatment available for many cases in children and prevention is emphasized. OBJECTIVES: To know the level of awareness in people about different aspects of viral hepatitis in paediatric population. STUDY DESIGN: Descriptive, cross sectional study. PLACE AND DURATION OF STUDY: Study was conducted in outpatient department paediatrics at Allied Hospital Faisalabad during 06 months period from 01-07-2000 to 31-12-2000. METHODOLOGY: A total of one thousand attendants of children based on non probability consecutive sampling, were included in the study. Relevant information was obtained from parents and/or caregivers through simple questions in their own language. They were asked about hepatitis in respect of etiology, mode of spread, clinical features, complications, treatment, prognosis and prevention. RESULTS: Out of 1,000 respondents, 71% (n=710) were females, 41% (n=410) were illiterate and 78% (n=780) were from low socio-economic class. Mixed type of awareness was seen about hepatitis (Jaundice). 58 %( n=580) were of opinion that it is caused by hot weather or by taking some hot food. 74% (n=740) know about personal contact and 73% (n=730) had knowledge about contaminated syringes. Maximum awareness was seen about clinical features, 97% (n=970) people knew about yellowish discoloration of eyes, 88% (n=880) people were aware about yellowish discoloration of stool or urine. Regarding treatment 47% (n=470) people had concept about drug treatment by doctors, 42% (n=420) favoured Hakeems and 12% (n=120) preferred folk healers, only 09% (n=90) told about no treatment. 76% (n=760) knew that hepatitis can be prevented by avoiding contaminated food & water, 65% (n=650) were aware about syringes abuse, 61% (n=610) favoured Screening of blood transfusions and 57 % (n=570) preferred patient isolation. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that there is partial awareness among parents/caregivers of children about various aspects of viral hepatitis in children especially its prevention. There is an urgent need for promoting awareness about the prevention of hepatitis in our society and Hepatitis awareness campaigns need to target people with less or no education, and limited access to media.