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What explains the rise of maritime private military security companies (PMSCs)? How do they differ from land-based PMSCs? I argue that PMSCs have become major providers of security at sea. Yet maritime PMSCs are not hired by states but by the maritime industry. The United States and allied forces do not guarantee merchant vessels' day-to-day security. Consequently, shipowners rely on PMSCs and war and piracy insurance to operate their vessels in dangerous waters. The United States, however, plays a vital role in regulating PMSCs and creating environments in which PMSCs can operate effectively. This paper shows that order at sea depends not on the United States' "hard" naval power but on its leadership in global governance and on its ability to create rules and norms for maritime behavior. It also shows that PMSCs can help secure the oceans if regulated and supported by state authorities. I illustrate this logic through three case studies of how the United States has facilitated private security efforts: during the Iran–Iraq Tanker War, in piracy-prone shipping lanes off Somalia, and in the Persian Gulf following attacks there in 2019. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There has been widespread and vociferous condemnation of Somali piracy and several states have used force against the pirates. This reflects the prevailing view of pirates as belligerents and aggressors who act wrongly. In this article, I challenge this view by defending the conditional moral permissibility of piracy. More specifically, I first argue that piracy can be morally permissible when certain conditions are met. These are what I call the principles of ‘justa piratica’, that is, the principles of just piracy. Second, I claim that these conditions are likely to apply to some Somali pirates. Third, as a corollary, I argue that the case of piracy shows that one of the shibboleths of Just War Theory – that a war cannot be just on both sides – is mistaken. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The demand for international maritime policing to counter Somali pirates is outstripping state supply. Hence, private military and security companies (PMSCs) are receiving considerable attention. These firms have a defensive/client-based security orientation that differs from naval patrolling and convoying. PMSCs offer close protection better suited for countering the rapidity of Somali pirate attacks and can avoid the legal and operational challenges naval forces confront. Nevertheless, one should not expect a swift increase in the PMSC presence due to functional concerns and normative expectations often held by shippers. For many, only state navies are to apply lethal violence at sea. Additionally, states sometimes wish to have some involvement in countering Somali pirates, though not always or only because of the perceived need to respond. Thus, PMSCs in the immediate future are not an easy remedy for state naval limitations in countering Somali pirates, though this article does offer suggestions on normative change regarding what it means to protect the flag. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]