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Aerobic glycolysis in cancer cells, also known as the 'Warburg effect', is driven by hyperactivity of lactate dehydrogenase A (LDHA). LDHA is thought to be a substrate-regulated enzyme, but it is unclear whether a dedicated intracellular protein also regulates its activity. Here, we identify the human tumor suppressor folliculin (FLCN) as a binding partner and uncompetitive inhibitor of LDHA. A flexible loop within the amino terminus of FLCN controls movement of the LDHA active-site loop, tightly regulating its enzyme activity and, consequently, metabolic homeostasis in normal cells. Cancer cells that experience the Warburg effect show FLCN dissociation from LDHA. Treatment of these cells with a decapeptide derived from the FLCN loop region causes cell death. Our data suggest that the glycolytic shift of cancer cells is the result of FLCN inactivation or dissociation from LDHA. Together, FLCN-mediated inhibition of LDHA provides a new paradigm for the regulation of glycolysis., (© 2021. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature America, Inc.)

FLCN is a tumor suppressor gene which controls energy homeostasis through regulation of a variety of metabolic pathways including mitochondrial oxidative metabolism and autophagy. Birt-Hogg-Dubé (BHD) syndrome which is driven by germline alteration of the FLCN gene, predisposes patients to develop kidney cancer, cutaneous fibrofolliculomas, pulmonary cysts and less frequently, salivary gland tumors. Here, we report metabolic roles for FLCN in the salivary gland as well as their clinical relevance. Screening of salivary glands of BHD patients using ultrasonography demonstrated increased cyst formation in the salivary gland. Salivary gland tumors that developed in BHD patients exhibited an upregulated mTOR-S6R pathway as well as increased GPNMB expression, which are characteristics of FLCN-deficient cells. Salivary gland-targeted Flcn knockout mice developed cytoplasmic clear cell formation in ductal cells with increased mitochondrial biogenesis, upregulated mTOR-S6K pathway, upregulated TFE3-GPNMB axis and upregulated lipid metabolism. Proteomic and metabolite analysis using LC/MS and GC/MS revealed that Flcn inactivation in salivary gland triggers metabolic reprogramming towards the pentose phosphate pathway which consequently upregulates nucleotide synthesis and redox regulation, further supporting that Flcn controls metabolic homeostasis in salivary gland. These data uncover important roles for FLCN in salivary gland; metabolic reprogramming under FLCN deficiency might increase nucleotide production which may feed FLCN-deficient salivary gland cells to trigger tumor initiation and progression, providing mechanistic insight into salivary gland tumorigenesis as well as a foundation for development of novel therapeutics for salivary gland tumors., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest Authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The tumor suppressor folliculin (FLCN) suppresses nuclear translocation of TFE3, a master transcription factor for lysosomal biogenesis, via regulation of amino-acid-sensing Rag GTPases. However, the importance of this lysosomal regulation in mammalian physiology remains unclear. Following hematopoietic-lineage-specific Flcn deletion in mice, we found expansion of vacuolated phagocytes that accumulate glycogen in their cytoplasm, phenotypes reminiscent of lysosomal storage disorder (LSD). We report that TFE3 acts in a feedback loop to transcriptionally activate FLCN expression, and FLCN loss disrupts this loop, augmenting TFE3 activity. Tfe3 deletion in Flcn knockout mice reduces the number of phagocytes and ameliorates LSD-like phenotypes. We further reveal that TFE3 stimulates glycogenesis by promoting the expression of glycogenesis genes, including Gys1 and Gyg, upon loss of Flcn. Taken together, we propose that the FLCN-TFE3 feedback loop acts as a rheostat to control lysosome activity and prevents excessive glycogenesis and LSD-like phagocyte activation., Competing Interests: Declaration of Interests The authors declare no competing interests., (Copyright © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Birt-Hogg-Dubé (BHD) syndrome is a hereditary kidney cancer syndrome, which predisposes patients to develop kidney cancer, cutaneous fibrofolliculomas and pulmonary cysts. The responsible gene FLCN is a tumor suppressor for kidney cancer, which plays an important role in energy homeostasis through the regulation of mitochondrial oxidative metabolism. However, the process by which FLCN-deficiency leads to renal tumorigenesis is unclear. In order to clarify molecular pathogenesis of BHD-associated kidney cancer, we conducted whole-exome sequencing analysis using next-generation sequencing technology as well as metabolite analysis using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Whole-exome sequencing analysis of BHD-associated kidney cancer revealed that copy number variations of BHD-associated kidney cancer are considerably different from those already reported in sporadic cases. In somatic variant analysis, very few variants were commonly observed in BHD-associated kidney cancer; however, variants in chromatin remodeling genes were frequently observed in BHD-associated kidney cancer (17/29 tumors, 59%). Metabolite analysis of BHD-associated kidney cancer revealed metabolic reprogramming toward upregulated redox regulation which may neutralize reactive oxygen species potentially produced from mitochondria with increased respiratory capacity under FLCN-deficiency. BHD-associated kidney cancer displays unique molecular characteristics that are completely different from sporadic kidney cancer, providing mechanistic insight into tumorigenesis under FLCN-deficiency as well as a foundation for development of novel therapeutics for kidney cancer., (© The Author(s) 2018. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Germline mutations in the novel tumor suppressor gene FLCN are responsible for the autosomal dominant inherited disorder Birt-Hogg-Dubé (BHD) syndrome that predisposes to fibrofolliculomas, lung cysts and spontaneous pneumothorax, and an increased risk for developing kidney tumors. Although the encoded protein, folliculin (FLCN), has no sequence homology to known functional domains, x-ray crystallographic studies have shown that the C-terminus of FLCN has structural similarity to DENN (differentially expressed in normal cells and neoplasia) domain proteins that act as guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) for small Rab GTPases. FLCN forms a complex with folliculin interacting proteins 1 and 2 (FNIP1, FNIP2) and with 5' AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). This review summarizes FLCN functional studies which support a role for FLCN in diverse metabolic pathways and cellular processes that include modulation of the mTOR pathway, regulation of PGC1α and mitochondrial biogenesis, cell-cell adhesion and RhoA signaling, control of TFE3/TFEB transcriptional activity, amino acid-dependent activation of mTORC1 on lysosomes through Rag GTPases, and regulation of autophagy. Ongoing research efforts are focused on clarifying the primary FLCN-associated pathway(s) that drives the development of fibrofolliculomas, lung cysts and kidney tumors in BHD patients carrying germline FLCN mutations., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Germline H255Y and K508R missense mutations in the folliculin (FLCN) gene have been identified in patients with bilateral multifocal (BMF) kidney tumours and clinical manifestations of Birt-Hogg-Dubé (BHD) syndrome, or with BMF kidney tumours as the only manifestation; however, their impact on FLCN function remains to be determined. In order to determine if FLCN H255Y and K508R missense mutations promote aberrant kidney cell proliferation leading to pathogenicity, we generated mouse models expressing these mutants using BAC recombineering technology and investigated their ability to rescue the multi-cystic phenotype of Flcn-deficient mouse kidneys. Flcn H255Y mutant transgene expression in kidney-targeted Flcn knockout mice did not rescue the multi-cystic kidney phenotype. However, expression of the Flcn K508R mutant transgene partially, but not completely, abrogated the phenotype. Notably, expression of the Flcn K508R mutant transgene in heterozygous Flcn knockout mice resulted in development of multi-cystic kidneys and cardiac hypertrophy in some mice. These results demonstrate that both FLCN H255Y and K508R missense mutations promote aberrant kidney cell proliferation, but to different degrees. Based on the phenotypes of our preclinical models, the FLCN H255Y mutant protein has lost it tumour suppressive function leading to the clinical manifestations of BHD, whereas the FLCN K508R mutant protein may have a dominant negative effect on the function of wild-type FLCN in regulating kidney cell proliferation and, therefore, act as an oncoprotein. These findings may provide mechanistic insight into the role of FLCN in regulating kidney cell proliferation and facilitate the development of novel therapeutics for FLCN-deficient kidney cancer., (Published by Oxford University Press 2016. This work is written by US Government employees and is in the public domain in the US.)

Heat shock protein-90 (Hsp90) is an essential molecular chaperone in eukaryotes involved in maintaining the stability and activity of numerous signalling proteins, also known as clients. Hsp90 ATPase activity is essential for its chaperone function and it is regulated by co-chaperones. Here we show that the tumour suppressor FLCN is an Hsp90 client protein and its binding partners FNIP1/FNIP2 function as co-chaperones. FNIPs decelerate the chaperone cycle, facilitating FLCN interaction with Hsp90, consequently ensuring FLCN stability. FNIPs compete with the activating co-chaperone Aha1 for binding to Hsp90, thereby providing a reciprocal regulatory mechanism for chaperoning of client proteins. Lastly, downregulation of FNIPs desensitizes cancer cells to Hsp90 inhibitors, whereas FNIPs overexpression in renal tumours compared with adjacent normal tissues correlates with enhanced binding of Hsp90 to its inhibitors. Our findings suggest that FNIPs expression can potentially serve as a predictive indicator of tumour response to Hsp90 inhibitors.

Folliculin (FLCN)-interacting proteins 1 and 2 (FNIP1, FNIP2) are homologous binding partners of FLCN, a tumor suppressor for kidney cancer. Recent studies have revealed potential functions for Flcn in kidney; however, kidney-specific functions for Fnip1 and Fnip2 are unknown. Here we demonstrate that Fnip1 and Fnip2 play critical roles in kidney tumor suppression in cooperation with Flcn. We observed no detectable phenotype in Fnip2 knockout mice, whereas Fnip1 deficiency produced phenotypes similar to those seen in Flcn-deficient mice in multiple organs, but not in kidneys. We found that absolute Fnip2 mRNA copy number was low relative to Fnip1 in organs that showed phenotypes under Fnip1 deficiency but was comparable to Fnip1 mRNA copy number in mouse kidney. Strikingly, kidney-targeted Fnip1/Fnip2 double inactivation produced enlarged polycystic kidneys, as was previously reported in Flcn-deficient kidneys. Kidney-specific Flcn inactivation did not further augment kidney size or cystic histology of Fnip1/Fnip2 double-deficient kidneys, suggesting pathways dysregulated in Flcn-deficient kidneys and Fnip1/Fnip2 double-deficient kidneys are convergent. Heterozygous Fnip1/homozygous Fnip2 double-knockout mice developed kidney cancer at 24 mo of age, analogous to the heterozygous Flcn knockout mouse model, further supporting the concept that Fnip1 and Fnip2 are essential for the tumor-suppressive function of Flcn and that kidney tumorigenesis in human Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome may be triggered by loss of interactions among Flcn, Fnip1, and Fnip2. Our findings uncover important roles for Fnip1 and Fnip2 in kidney tumor suppression and may provide molecular targets for the development of novel therapeutics for kidney cancer.

Spontaneous pneumothoraces due to lung cyst rupture afflict patients with the rare disease Birt-Hogg-Dubé (BHD) syndrome, which is caused by mutations of the tumor suppressor gene folliculin (FLCN). The underlying mechanism of the lung manifestations in BHD is unclear. We show that BHD lungs exhibit increased alveolar epithelial cell apoptosis and that Flcn deletion in mouse lung epithelium leads to cell apoptosis, alveolar enlargement, and an impairment of both epithelial barrier and overall lung function. We find that Flcn-null epithelial cell apoptosis is the result of impaired AMPK activation and increased cleaved caspase-3. AMPK activator LKB1 and E-cadherin are downregulated by Flcn loss and restored by its expression. Correspondingly, Flcn-null cell survival is rescued by the AMPK activator AICAR or constitutively active AMPK. AICAR also improves lung condition of Flcn(f/f):SP-C-Cre mice. Our data suggest that lung cysts in BHD may result from an underlying defect in alveolar epithelial cell survival, attributable to FLCN regulation of the E-cadherin-LKB1-AMPK axis., (Copyright © 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Since the hallmark dermatologic features of Birt-Hogg-Dubé (BHD) syndrome were first described by three Canadian physicians in 1977, the clinical manifestations of BHD have been expanded to include hamartomas of the hair follicle, lung cysts, increased risk for spontaneous pneumothorax and kidney neoplasia. Twenty-five years later the causative gene FLCN was identified, and the mutation spectrum has now been defined to include mainly protein truncating mutations, but also rare missense mutations and large gene deletions/duplication. Second "hit" FLCN mutations in BHD kidney tumors and loss of tumorigenic potential of the FLCN-null UOK257 tumor cell line when FLCN is re-expressed underscore a tumor suppressor role for FLCN. The identification of novel FLCN interacting proteins FNIP1 and FNIP2/L and their interaction with 5'-AMP activated protein kinase (AMPK) has provided a link between FLCN and the AMPK-mTOR axis and suggested molecular targets for therapeutic intervention to treat BHD kidney cancer and fibrofolliculomas. The generation of FLCN-null cell lines and in vivo animal models in which FLCN (or FNIP1) has been inactivated have provided critical reagents to facilitate mechanistic studies of FLCN function. Research efforts utilizing these critical FLCN-deficient cell lines and mice have begun to uncover important signaling pathways in which FLCN and its protein partners may play a role, including TGF-β signaling, TFE3 transcriptional regulation, PGC1-α driven mitochondrial biogenesis, apoptotic response to cell stress, and vesicular transport. As the mechanisms by which FLCN inactivation leads to BHD manifestations are clarified, we can begin to develop therapeutic agents that target the pathways dysregulated in FLCN-deficient fibrofolliculomas and kidney tumors, providing improved prognosis and quality of life for BHD patients.

Background: Birt-Hogg-Dubé (BHD) syndrome is a hereditary hamartoma syndrome that predisposes patients to develop hair follicle tumors, lung cysts, and kidney cancer. Genetic studies of BHD patients have uncovered the causative gene, FLCN, but its function is incompletely understood., Methods: Mice with conditional alleles of FLCN and/or peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PPARGC1A), a transcriptional coactivator that regulates mitochondrial biogenesis, were crossbred with mice harboring either muscle creatine kinase (CKM) -Cre or myogenin (MYOG) -Cre transgenes to knock out FLCN and/or PPARGC1A in muscle, or cadherin 16 (CDH16)- Cre transgenes to knock out FLCN and/or PPARGC1A in kidney. Real-time polymerase chain reaction, immunoblotting, electron microscopy, and metabolic profiling assay were performed to evaluate mitochondrial biogenesis and function in muscle. Immunoblotting, electron microscopy, and histological analysis were used to investigate expression and the pathological role of PPARGC1A in FLCN-deficient kidney. Real-time polymerase chain reaction, oxygen consumption measurement, and flow cytometry were carried out using a FLCN-null kidney cancer cell line. All statistical analyses were two-sided., Results: Muscle-targeted FLCN knockout mice underwent a pronounced metabolic shift toward oxidative phosphorylation, including increased mitochondrial biogenesis (FLCN ( f/f ) vs FLCN ( f/f ) /CKM-Cre: % mitochondrial area mean = 7.8% vs 17.8%; difference = 10.0%; 95% confidence interval = 5.7% to 14.3%; P < .001), and the observed increase in mitochondrial biogenesis was PPARGC1A dependent. Reconstitution of FLCN-null kidney cancer cells with wild-type FLCN suppressed mitochondrial metabolism and PPARGC1A expression. Kidney-targeted PPARGC1A inactivation partially rescued the enlarged kidney phenotype and abrogated the hyperplastic cells observed in the FLCN-deficient kidney., Conclusion: FLCN deficiency and subsequent increased PPARGC1A expression result in increased mitochondrial function and oxidative metabolism as the source of cellular energy, which may give FLCN-null kidney cells a growth advantage and drive hyperplastic transformation.

Birt-Hogg-Dubé (BHD) syndrome is an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by cutaneous fibrofolliculomas, pulmonary cysts, and kidney malignancies. Affected individuals carry germ line mutations in folliculin (FLCN), a tumor suppressor gene that becomes biallelically inactivated in kidney tumors by second-hit mutations. Similar to other factors implicated in kidney cancer, FLCN has been shown to modulate activation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). However, its precise in vivo function is largely unknown because germ line deletion of Flcn results in early embryonic lethality in animal models. Here, we describe mice deficient in the newly characterized folliculin-interacting protein 1 (Fnip1). In contrast to Flcn, Fnip1(-/-) mice develop normally, are not susceptible to kidney neoplasia, but display a striking pro-B cell block that is entirely independent of mTOR activity. We show that this developmental arrest results from rapid caspase-induced pre-B cell death, and that a Bcl2 transgene reconstitutes mature B-cell populations, respectively. We also demonstrate that conditional deletion of Flcn recapitulates the pro-B cell arrest of Fnip1(-/-) mice. Our studies thus demonstrate that the FLCN-FNIP complex deregulated in BHD syndrome is absolutely required for B-cell differentiation, and that it functions through both mTOR-dependent and independent pathways.

Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome (BHDS), caused by germline mutations in the folliculin (FLCN) gene, predisposes individuals to develop fibrofolliculomas, pulmonary cysts, spontaneous pneumothoraces, and kidney cancer. The FLCN mutation detection rate by bidirectional DNA sequencing in the National Cancer Institute BHDS cohort was 88%. To determine if germline FLCN intragenic deletions/duplications were responsible for BHDS in families lacking FLCN sequence alterations, 23 individuals from 15 unrelated families with clinically confirmed BHDS but no sequence variations were analyzed by real-time quantitative PCR (RQ-PCR) using primers for all 14 exons. Multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA) assay and array-based comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH) were utilized to confirm and fine map the rearrangements. Long-range PCR followed by DNA sequencing was used to define the breakpoints. We identified six unique intragenic deletions in nine patients from six different BHDS families including four involving exon 1, one that spanned exons 2-5, and one that encompassed exons 7-14 of FLCN. Four of the six deletion breakpoints were mapped, revealing deletions ranging from 5688 to 9189 bp. In addition, one 1341 bp duplication, which included exons 10 and 11, was identified and mapped. This report confirms that large intragenic FLCN deletions can cause BHDS and documents the first large intragenic FLCN duplication in a BHDS patient. Additionally, we identified a deletion "hot spot" in the 5'-noncoding-exon 1 region that contains the putative FLCN promoter based on a luciferase reporter assay. RQ-PCR, MLPA and aCGH may be used for clinical molecular diagnosis of BHDS in patients who are FLCN mutation-negative by DNA sequencing., (Copyright © 2011 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

Background: Germline mutations in a tumor suppressor gene FLCN lead to development of fibrofolliculomas, lung cysts and renal cell carcinoma (RCC) in Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome. TFE3 is a member of the MiTF/TFE transcription factor family and Xp11.2 translocations found in sporadic RCC involving TFE3 result in gene fusions and overexpression of chimeric fusion proteins that retain the C-terminal DNA binding domain of TFE3. We found that GPNMB expression, which is regulated by MiTF, was greatly elevated in renal cancer cells harboring either TFE3 translocations or FLCN inactivation. Since TFE3 is implicated in RCC, we hypothesized that elevated GPNMB expression was due to increased TFE3 activity resulting from the inactivation of FLCN., Methodology/principal Findings: TFE3 knockdown reduced GPNMB expression in renal cancer cells harboring either TFE3 translocations or FLCN inactivation. Moreover, FLCN knockdown induced GPNMB expression in FLCN-restored renal cancer cells. Conversely, wildtype FLCN suppressed GPNMB expression in FLCN-null cells. FLCN inactivation was correlated with increased TFE3 transcriptional activity accompanied by its nuclear localization as revealed by elevated GPNMB mRNA and protein expression, and predominantly nuclear immunostaining of TFE3 in renal cancer cells, mouse embryo fibroblast cells, mouse kidneys and mouse and human renal tumors. Nuclear localization of TFE3 was associated with TFE3 post-translational modifications including decreased phosphorylation., Conclusions/significance: Increased TFE3 activity is a downstream event induced by FLCN inactivation and is likely to be important for renal tumor development. This study provides an important novel mechanism for induction of TFE3 activity in addition to TFE3 overexpression resulting from Xp11.2 translocations, suggesting that TFE3 may be more broadly involved in tumorigenesis.

Background: Germline mutations in the FLCN gene are responsible for the development of fibrofolliculomas, lung cysts and renal neoplasia in Birt-Hogg-Dube' (BHD) syndrome. The encoded protein folliculin (FLCN) is conserved across species but contains no classic motifs or domains and its function remains unknown. Somatic mutations or loss of heterozygosity in the remaining wild type copy of the FLCN gene have been found in renal tumors from BHD patients suggesting that FLCN is a classic tumor suppressor gene., Results: To examine the tumor suppressor function of FLCN, wild-type or mutant FLCN (H255R) was stably expressed in a FLCN-null renal tumor cell line, UOK257, derived from a BHD patient. When these cells were injected into nude mice, tumor development was inversely dependent upon the level of wild-type FLCN expression. We identified genes that were differentially expressed in the cell lines with or without wild-type FLCN, many of which are involved in TGF-beta signaling, including TGF-beta2 (TGFB2), inhibin beta A chain (INHBA), thrombospondin 1 (THBS1), gremlin (GREM1), and SMAD3. In support of the in vitro data, TGFB2, INHBA, THBS1 and SMAD3 expression levels were significantly lower in BHD-associated renal tumors compared with normal kidney tissue. Although receptor mediated SMAD phosphorylation was not affected, basal and maximal TGF-beta-induced levels of TGFB2, INHBA and SMAD7 were dramatically reduced in FLCN-null cells compared with FLCN-restored cells. Secreted TGF-beta2 and activin A (homo-dimer of INHBA) protein levels were also lower in FLCN-null cells compared with FLCN-restored cells. Consistent with a growth suppressive function, activin A (but not TGF-beta2) completely suppressed anchorage-independent growth of FLCN-null UOK257 cells., Conclusions: Our data demonstrate a role for FLCN in the regulation of key molecules in TGF-beta signaling and confirm deregulation of their expression in BHD-associated renal tumors. Thus, deregulation of genes involved in TGF-beta signaling by FLCN inactivation is likely to be an important step for tumorigenesis in BHD syndrome.

Germline mutations in the BHD/FLCN tumor suppressor gene predispose patients to develop renal tumors in the hamartoma syndrome, Birt-Hogg-Dubé (BHD). BHD encodes folliculin, a protein with unknown function that may interact with the energy- and nutrient-sensing AMPK-mTOR signaling pathways. To clarify BHD function in the mouse, we generated a BHD knockout mouse model. BHD homozygous null (BHD(d/d)) mice displayed early embryonic lethality at E5.5-E6.5, showing defects in the visceral endoderm. BHD heterozygous knockout (BHDd(/+)) mice appeared normal at birth but developed kidney cysts and solid tumors as they aged (median kidney-lesion-free survival = 23 months, median tumor-free survival = 25 months). As observed in human BHD kidney tumors, three different histologic types of kidney tumors developed in BHD(d/+) mice including oncocytic hybrid, oncocytoma, and clear cell with concomitant loss of heterozygosity (LOH), supporting a tumor suppressor function for BHD in the mouse. The PI3K-AKT pathway was activated in both human BHD renal tumors and kidney tumors in BHD(d/+) mice. Interestingly, total AKT protein was elevated in kidney tumors compared to normal kidney tissue, but without increased levels of AKT mRNA, suggesting that AKT may be regulated by folliculin through post translational or post-transcriptional modification. Finally, BHD inactivation led to both mTORC1 and mTORC2 activation in kidney tumors from BHD(d/+) mice and human BHD patients. These data support a role for PI3K-AKT pathway activation in kidney tumor formation caused by loss of BHD and suggest that inhibitors of both mTORC1 and mTORC2 may be effective as potential therapeutic agents for BHD-associated kidney cancer.

Background: Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome (BHDS) (MIM 135150) is an autosomal dominant predisposition to the development of follicular hamartomas (fibrofolliculomas), lung cysts, spontaneous pneumothorax, and kidney neoplasms. Germline mutations in BHD are associated with the susceptibility for BHDS. We previously described 51 BHDS families with BHD germline mutations., Objective: To characterise the BHD mutation spectrum, novel mutations and new clinical features of one previously reported and 50 new families with BHDS., Methods: Direct bidirectional DNA sequencing was used to screen for mutations in the BHD gene, and insertion and deletion mutations were confirmed by subcloning. We analysed evolutionary conservation of folliculin by comparing human against the orthologous sequences., Results: The BHD mutation detection rate was 88% (51/58). Of the 23 different germline mutations identified, 13 were novel consisting of: four splice site, three deletions, two insertions, two nonsense, one deletion/insertion, and one missense mutation. We report the first germline missense mutation in BHD c.1978A>G (K508R) in a patient who presented with bilateral multifocal renal oncocytomas. This mutation occurs in a highly conserved amino acid in folliculin. 10% (5/51) of the families had individuals without histologically confirmed fibrofolliculomas. Of 44 families ascertained on the basis of skin lesions, 18 (41%) had kidney tumours. Patients with a germline BHD mutation and family history of kidney cancer had a statistically significantly increased probability of developing renal tumours compared to patients without a positive family history (p = 0.0032). Similarly, patients with a BHD germline mutation and family history of spontaneous pneumothorax had a significantly increased greater probability of having spontaneous pneumothorax than BHDS patients without a family history of spontaneous pneumothorax (p = 0.011). A comprehensive review of published reports of cases with BHD germline mutation is discussed., Conclusion: BHDS is characterised by a spectrum of mutations, and clinical heterogeneity both among and within families.

Background: Patients with Birt-Hogg-Dubé (BHD) syndrome harbor germline mutations in the BHD tumor suppressor gene that are associated with an increased risk for kidney cancer. BHD encodes folliculin, a protein that may interact with the energy- and nutrient-sensing 5'-AMP-activated protein kinase-mammalian target of rapamycin (AMPK-mTOR) signaling pathways., Methods: We used recombineering methods to generate mice with a conditional BHD allele and introduced the cadherin 16 (KSP)-Cre transgene to target BHD inactivation to the kidney. Kidney cell proliferation was measured by BrdU incorporation and phospho-histone H3 staining. Kidney weight data were analyzed with Wilcoxon's rank-sum, Student's t, and Welch's t tests. Hematoxylin and eosin staining and immunoblot analysis and immunohistochemistry of cell cycle and signaling proteins were performed on mouse kidney cells and tissues. BHD knockout mice and kidney cells isolated from BHD knockout and control mice were treated with the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin. Mouse survival was evaluated by Kaplan-Meier analyses. All statistical tests were two-sided., Results: BHD knockout mice developed enlarged polycystic kidneys and died from renal failure by 3 weeks of age. Targeted BHD knockout led to the activation of Raf-extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (Erk)1/2 and Akt-mTOR pathways in the kidneys and increased expression of cell cycle proteins and cell proliferation. Rapamycin-treated BHD knockout mice had smaller kidneys than buffer-treated BHD knockout mice had (n = 4-6 mice per group, relative kidney/body weight ratios, mean = 4.64% vs 12.2%, difference = 7.6%, 95% confidence interval = 5.2% to 10.0%; P < .001) and longer median survival time (n = 4-5 mice per group, 41.5 vs 23 days; P = .0065 )., Conclusions: Homozygous loss of BHD may initiate renal tumorigenesis in the mouse. The conditional BHD knockout mouse may be a useful research model for dissecting multistep kidney carcinogenesis, and rapamycin may be considered as a potential treatment for Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome.

Rationale: Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome (BHDS) is an autosomal, dominantly inherited genodermatosis that predisposes to fibrofolliculomas, kidney neoplasms, lung cysts, and spontaneous pneumothorax., Objectives: We evaluated 198 patients from 89 families with BHDS to characterize the risk factors for pneumothorax and genotype-pulmonary associations., Methods: Helical computed tomography scans of the chest were used to screen for pulmonary abnormalities. BHD mutation data were used for genotype-pulmonary associations. We examined the relationship of pneumothorax with categorical parameters (sex, smoking history, and lung cysts) and continuous parameters (number of cysts, lung cyst volume, and largest cyst diameter and volume). Logistic regression analyses were used to identify the risk factors associated with pneumothorax., Measurements and Main Results: Twenty-four percent (48/198) of patients with BHDS had a history of pneumothorax. The presence of lung cysts was significantly associated with pneumothorax (p = 0.006). Total lung cyst volume, largest cyst diameter and volume, and every parameter related to the number of lung cysts were significantly associated (p < 0.0001) with pneumothorax. A logistic regression analysis showed that only the total number of cysts in the right parenchymal lower lobe and the total number of cysts located on the pleural surface in the right middle lobe were needed to classify a patient as to whether or not he or she was likely to have a pneumothorax. Exon location of the BHD mutation was associated with the numbers of cysts (p = 0.0002)., Conclusions: This study indicates that patients with BHDS have a significant association between lung cysts and spontaneous pneumothorax.

Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome, a hamartoma disorder characterized by benign tumors of the hair follicle, lung cysts, and renal neoplasia, is caused by germ-line mutations in the BHD(FLCN) gene, which encodes a tumor-suppressor protein, folliculin (FLCN), with unknown function. The tumor-suppressor proteins encoded by genes responsible for several other hamartoma syndromes, LKB1, TSC1/2, and PTEN, have been shown to be involved in the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway. Here, we report the identification of the FLCN-interacting protein, FNIP1, and demonstrate its interaction with 5' AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), a key molecule for energy sensing that negatively regulates mTOR activity. FNIP1 was phosphorylated by AMPK, and its phosphorylation was reduced by AMPK inhibitors, which resulted in reduced FNIP1 expression. AMPK inhibitors also reduced FLCN phosphorylation. Moreover, FLCN phosphorylation was diminished by rapamycin and amino acid starvation and facilitated by FNIP1 overexpression, suggesting that FLCN may be regulated by mTOR and AMPK signaling. Our data suggest that FLCN, mutated in Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome, and its interacting partner FNIP1 may be involved in energy and/or nutrient sensing through the AMPK and mTOR signaling pathways.

Birt-Hogg-Dubé syndrome (BHD) is a rare, inherited genodermatosis characterized by hair follicle hamartomas, kidney tumors and spontaneous pneumothorax. The BHD locus was mapped to chromosome 17p11.2 by linkage analysis, and germline mutations in a novel gene (BHD) were identified in a panel of BHD families. Using RNA interference to decrease expression of the Drosophila BHD homolog (DBHD), we have demonstrated that DBHD is required for male germline stem cell (GSC) maintenance in the fly testis. Reduction of DBHD gene activity suppresses the GSC overproliferation phenotype associated with overexpression of either unpaired (upd) or decapentaplegic (dpp). Further genetic interaction experiments suggest that DBHD regulates GSC maintenance downstream or in parallel of the JAK/STAT and Dpp signal-transduction pathways. These findings suggest that the BHD protein may regulate tumorigenesis through modulating stem cells in human.

Purpose: Hereditary papillary renal carcinoma (HPRC) is characterized by a predisposition to multiple, bilateral papillary type 1 renal tumors caused by inherited activating missense mutations in the tyrosine kinase domain of the MET proto-oncogene. In the current study we evaluated the clinical phenotype and germline MET mutation of 3 new HPRC families. We describe the early onset clinical features of HPRC., Materials and Methods: We identified new HPRC families of Italian (family 177), Spanish (family 223) and Cuban (family 268) descent. We evaluated their clinical features, performed MET mutation analysis by denaturing high performance liquid chromatography and DNA sequencing, and estimated age dependent penetrance and survival using Kaplan-Meier analysis. We characterized renal tumors by histology and fluorescence in situ hybridization., Results: Identical germline MET c.3522G --> A mutations (V1110I) were identified in families 177 and 268 but no evidence of a founder effect was found. Affected members of family 223 carried a germline c.3906G --> C.3522G --> A MET mutation (V1238I). Age dependent penetrance but not survival was significantly earlier for the c.3522G -->A mutation than for the c.3906G --> A mutation in these HPRC families. Trisomy of chromosome 7 and papillary renal carcinoma type 1 histology were detected in papillary renal tumors., Conclusions: HPRC can occur in an early onset form. The median age for renal tumor development in these 3 HPRC families was 46 to 63 years. HPRC associated papillary renal tumors may be aggressive and metastasize, leading to mortality. Median survival age was 60 to 70 years. Families with identical germline mutations in MET do not always share a common ancestor. HPRC is characterized by germline mutations in MET and papillary type 1 renal tumor histology.