Search

Context. Imaged in the gap of a transition disk and found at a separation of about 195 mas (~22 au) from its host star at a position angle of about 155°, PDS 70 b is the most robustly detected young planet to date. This system is therefore a unique laboratory for characterizing the properties of young planetary systems at the stage of their formation. Aims. We aim to trace direct and indirect imprints of PDS 70 b on the gas and dust emission of the circumstellar disk in order to study the properties of this ~5 Myr young planetary system. Methods. We obtained ALMA band 7 observations of PDS 70 in dust continuum and 12CO (3–2) and combined them with archival data. This resulted in an unprecedented angular resolution of about 70 mas (~8 au). Results. We derive an upper limit on circumplanetary material at the location of PDS 70 b of ~0.01 M⊕ and find a highly structured circumstellar disk in both dust and gas. The outer dust ring peaks at 0.65′′ (74 au) and reveals a possible second unresolved peak at about 0.53′′ (60 au). The integrated intensity of CO also shows evidence of a depletion of emission at ~0.2′′ (23 au) with a width of ~0.1′′ (11 au). The gas kinematics show evidence of a deviation from Keplerian rotation inside ≲0.8′′ (91 au). This implies a pressure gradient that can account for the location of the dust ring well beyond the location of PDS 70 b. Farther in, we detect an inner disk that appears to be connected to the outer disk by a possible bridge feature in the northwest region in both gas and dust. We compare the observations to hydrodynamical simulations that include a planet with different masses that cover the estimated mass range that was previously derived from near-infrared photometry (~5–9 MJup). We find that even a planet with a mass of 10 MJup may not be sufficient to explain the extent of the wide gap, and an additional low-mass companion may be needed to account for the observed disk morphology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Transition disks are considered sites of ongoing planet formation, and their dust and gas distributions could be signposts of embedded planets. The transition disk around the T Tauri star RY Lup has an inner dust cavity and displays a strong silicate emission feature. Aims. Using high-resolution imaging we study the disk geometry, including non-axisymmetric features, and its surface dust grain, to gain a better understanding of the disk evolutionary process. Moreover, we search for companion candidates, possibly connected to the disk. Methods. We obtained high-contrast and high angular resolution data in the near-infrared with the VLT/SPHERE extreme adaptive optics instrument whose goal is to study the planet formation by detecting and characterizing these planets and their formation environments through direct imaging. We performed polarimetric imaging of the RY Lup disk with IRDIS (at 1.6 μm), and obtained intensity images with the IRDIS dual-band imaging camera simultaneously with the IFS spectro-imager (0.9–1.3 μm). Results. We resolved for the first time the scattered light from the nearly edge-on circumstellar disk around RY Lup, at projected separations in the 100 au range. The shape of the disk and its sharp features are clearly detectable at wavelengths ranging from 0.9 to 1.6 μm. We show that the observed morphology can be interpreted as spiral arms in the disk. This interpretation is supported by in-depth numerical simulations. We also demonstrate that these features can be produced by one planet interacting with the disk. We also detect several point sources which are classified as probable background objects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Hydrodynamic, non-magnetic instabilities can provide turbulent stress in the regions of protoplanetary discs, where the magneto-rotational instability can not develop. The induced motions influence the grain growth, from which formation of planetesimals begins. Thermal relaxation of the gas constrains origins of the identified hydrodynamic sources of turbulence in discs. Aims. We aim to estimate the radiative relaxation timescale of temperature perturbations in protoplanetary discs.We study the dependence of the thermal relaxation on the perturbation wavelength, the location within the disc, the disc mass, and the dust-to-gas mass ratio. We then apply thermal relaxation criteria to localise modes of the convective overstability, the vertical shear instability, and the zombie vortex instability. Methods. For a given temperature perturbation, we estimated two timescales: the radiative diffusion timescale tthick and the optically thin emission timescale tthin. The longest of these timescales governs the relaxation: trelax = max (tthick, tthin). We additionally accounted for the collisional coupling to the emitting species. Our calculations employed the latest tabulated dust and gas mean opacities. Results. The relaxation criterion defines the bulk of a typical T Tauri disc as unstable to the development of linear hydrodynamic instabilities. The midplane is unstable to the convective overstability from at most 2 au and up to 40 au, as well as beyond 140 au. The vertical shear instability can develop between 15 au and 180 au. The successive generation of (zombie) vortices from a seeded noise can work within the inner 0:8 au. Conclusions. A map of relaxation timescale constrains the origins of the identified hydrodynamic turbulence-driving mechanisms in protoplanetary discs. Dynamic disc modelling with the evolution of dust and gas opacities is required to clearly localise the hydrodynamic turbulence, and especially its non-linear phase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims. Dust grains with sizes around (sub)mm are expected to couple only weakly to the gas motion in regions beyond 10 au of circumstellar disks. In this work, we investigate the influence of the spatial distribution of these grains on the (sub)mm appearance of magnetized protoplanetary disks. Methods. We perform non-ideal global 3D magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) stratified disk simulations, including particles of different sizes (50 μm to 1 cm), using a Lagrangian particle solver. Subsequently, we calculate the spatial dust temperature distribution, including the dynamically coupled submicron-sized dust grains, and derive ideal continuum re-emission maps of the disk through radiative transfer simulations. Finally, we investigate the feasibility of observing specific structures in the thermal re-emission maps with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA). Results. Depending on the level of turbulence, the radial pressure gradient of the gas, and the grain size, particles settle to the midplane and/or drift radially inward. The pressure bump close to the outer edge of the dead-zone leads to particle-trapping in ring structures. More specifically, vortices in the disk concentrate the dust and create an inhomogeneous distribution of solid material in the azimuthal direction. The large-scale disk perturbations are preserved in the (sub)mm re-emission maps. The observable structures are very similar to those expected from planet-disk interaction. Additionally, the larger dust particles increase the brightness contrast between the gap and ring structures. We find that rings, gaps, and the dust accumulation in the vortex could be traced with ALMA down to a scale of a few astronomical units in circumstellar disks located in nearby star-forming regions. Finally, we present a brief comparison of these structures with those recently found with ALMA in the young circumstellar disks of HL Tau and Oph IRS 48. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Circumstellar disks are considered to be the birthplace of planets. Specific structures like spiral arms, gaps, and cavities are characteristic indicators of planet-disk interaction. Investigating these structures can provide insights into the growth of protoplanets and the physical properties of the disk. Aims. We investigate the feasibility of using molecular lines to trace planet-induced structures in circumstellar disks. Methods. Based on 3D hydrodynamic simulations of planet-disk interactions obtained with the PLUTO code, we perform selfconsistent temperature calculations and produce N-LTE molecular line velocity-channel maps and spectra of these disks using our new N-LTE line radiative transfer code Mol3D. Subsequently, we simulate ALMA observations using the CASA simulator. We consider two nearly face-on inclinations, five disk masses, seven disk radii, and two di erent typical pre-main-sequence host stars (T Tauri, Herbig Ae) at a distance of 140 pc.We calculate up to 141 individual velocity-channel maps for five molecules/isotopoloques (12C16O, 12C18O, HCO+, HCN, and CS) in a total of 32 rotational transitions to investigate the frequency dependence of the structures indicated above. Results.We find that the majority of protoplanetary disks in our parameter space could be detected in the molecular lines considered. However, unlike the continuum case, gap detection is not straightforward in lines. For example, gaps are not seen in symmetric rings but are masked by the pattern caused by the global (Keplerian) velocity field. By comparison with simulated observations of undisturbed disks we identify specific regions in the velocity-channel maps that are characteristic of planet-induced structures. Conclusions. Simulations of high angular resolution molecular line observations demonstrate the potential of ALMA to provide complementary information about the planet-disk interaction as compared to continuum observations. In particular, the detection of planet-induced gaps is possible under certain conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We have performed three-dimensional magnetohydrodynamical simulations of stellar accretion disks, using the PLUTO code, and studied the accretion of gas onto a Jupiter-mass planet and the structure of the circumplanetary gas flow after opening a gap in the disk.We compare our results with simulations of laminar, yet viscous disks with different levels of an α-type viscosity. In all cases, we find that the accretion flow across the surface of the Hill sphere of the planet is not spherically or azimuthally symmetric, and is predominantly restricted to the mid-plane region of the disk. Even in the turbulent case, we find no significant vertical flow of mass into the Hill sphere. The outer parts of the circumplanetary disk are shown to rotate significantly below Keplerian speed, independent of viscosity, while the circumplanetary disk density (therefore the angular momentum) increases with viscosity. For a simulation of a magnetized turbulent disk, where the global averaged alpha stress is αMHD = 10−3, we find the accretion rate onto the planet to be ˙M ≈ 2 × 10−6MJ yr−1 for a gap surface density of 12 g cm−2. This is about a third of the accretion rate obtained in a laminar viscous simulation with equivalent α parameter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Planets are supposed to form in circumstellar disks. The additional gravitational potential of a planet perturbs the disk and leads to characteristic structures, i.e. spiral waves and gaps, in the disk's density profile. Aims. We perform a large-scale parameter study of the observability of these planet-induced structures in circumstellar disks in the (sub)mm wavelength range for the Atacama Large (Sub)Millimeter Array (ALMA). Methods. On the basis of hydrodynamical and magneto-hydrodynamical simulations of star-disk-planet models, we calculated the disk temperature structure and (sub)mm images of these systems. These were used to derive simulated ALMA images. Because appropriate objects are frequent in the Taurus-Auriga region, we focused on a distance of 140 pc and a declination of ≈20?. The explored range of star-disk-planet configurations consists of six hydrodynamical simulations (including magnetic fields and different planet masses), nine disk sizes with outer radii ranging from 9AU to 225 AU, 15 total disk masses in the range between 2.67 x 10-7 M⊙ and 4.10 x 10-2 M⊙, six different central stars, and two different grain size distributions, resulting in 10 000 disk models. Results. On almost all scales and in particular down to a scale of a few AU, ALMA is able to trace disk structures induced by planet-disk interaction or by the influence of magnetic fields on the wavelength range between 0.4 and 2.0 mm. In most cases, the optimum angular resolution is limited by the sensitivity of ALMA. However, within the range of typical masses of protoplanetary disks (0.1-0.001 M⊙) the disk mass has a minor impact on the observability. It is possible to resolve disks down to 2.67 x 10-6 M⊙ and trace gaps induced by a planet with Mp/M⋆= 0.001 in disks with 2.67 x 10-4 M⊙ with a signal-to-noise ratio greater than three. The central star has a major impact on the observability of gaps, as well as the considered maximum grainsize of the dust in the disk. In general, it is more likely to trace planet-induced gaps in our magnetohydrodynamical disk models, because gaps are wider in the presence of magnetic fields. We also find that zonal flows resulting from magneto-rotational instability (MRI) create gap-like structures in the disk's re-emission radiation, which are observable with ALMA. Conclusions. Through the unprecedented resolution and sensitivity of ALMA in the (sub)mm wavelength range, the expected detailed observations of planet-disk interaction and global disk structures will deepen our understanding of the planet formation and disk evolution process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. This is the fourth paper in a series showing the results of planet population synthesis calculations. In Paper I, we presented our methods. In Paper II, we compared the synthetic and the observed planetary population statistically. Paper III addressed the influences of the stellar mass on the population. Aims. Our goal in this fourth paper is to systematically study the effects of important disk properties, namely disk metallicity, mass, and lifetime on fundamental properties of planets like mass and semimajor axis. Methods. For a large number of protoplanetary disks that have properties following distributions derived from observations, we calculated a population of planets with our formation model. The model is based on the classical core accretion paradigm but selfconsistently includes planet migration and disk evolution. Results. We find a very large number of correlations. Regarding the planetary initial mass function, metallicity, Mdisk, and τdisk play different roles. For high metallicities, giant planets are more frequent. For high Mdisk, giant planets are more massive. For long τdisk, giant planets are both more frequent and massive. At low metallicities, very massive giant planets cannot form, but otherwise giant planet mass and metallicity are nearly uncorrelated. In contrast, (maximum) planet masses and disk gas masses are correlated. The formation of giant planets is possible for initial planetesimal surface densities ΣS of at least 6 g/cm2 at 5.2 AU. The best spot for giant planet formation is at ∼5 AU. In- and outside this distance, higher Σ;S are necessary. Low metallicities can be compensated for by high Mdisk, and vice versa, but not ad infinitum. At low metallicities, giant planets only form outside the ice line, while giant planet formation occurs throughout the disk at high metallicities. The extent of migration increases with Mdisk and τdisk and usually decreases with metallicity. No clear correlation of metallicity and the semimajor axis distribution of giant planets exists because in low-metallicity disks, planets start farther out, but migrate more, while the contrary applies to high metallicities. The final semimajor axis distribution contains an imprint of the ice line. Close-in low mass planets have a lower mean metallicity than hot Jupiters. The frequency of giant planets varies approximately as M1.2 disk. Conclusions. The properties of protoplanetary disks - the initial and boundary conditions for planet formation - are decisive for the properties of planets, and leave many imprints on the population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]2 disk. Conclusions. The properties of protoplanetary disks - the initial and boundary conditions for planet formation - are decisive for the properties of planets, and leave many imprints on the population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. The global size and spatial distribution of dust is an important ingredient in the structure and evolution of protoplanetary disks and in the formation of larger bodies, such as planetesimals. Aims. We aim to derive simple equations that explain the global evolution of the dust surface density profile and the upper limit of the grain size distribution and which can readily be used for further modeling or for interpreting of observational data. Methods. We have developed a simple model that follows the upper end of the dust size distribution and the evolution of the dust surface density profile. This model is calibrated with state-of-the-art simulations of dust evolution, which treat dust growth, fragmentation, and transport in viscously evolving gas disks. Results. We find very good agreement between the full dust-evolution code and the toy model presented in this paper. We derive analytical profiles that describe the dust-to-gas ratios and the dust surface density profiles well in protoplanetary disks, as well as the radial flux by solid material "rain out", which is crucial for triggering any gravity assisted formation of planetesimals. We show that fragmentation is the dominating effect in the inner regions of the disk leading to a dust surface density exponent of -1.5, while the outer regions at later times can become drift-dominated, yielding a dust surface density exponent of -0.75. Our results show that radial drift is not efficient in fragmenting dust grains. This supports the theory that small dust grains are resupplied by fragmentation due to the turbulent state of the disk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigate the significance of large-scale azimuthal, magnetic, and velocity modes for the magnetorotational instability (MRI) turbulence in accretion disks. We perform three-dimensional global ideal MHD simulations of global stratified protoplanetary disk models. Our domains span azimuthal angles of π/4, π/2, π, and 2π. We observe up to 100% stronger magnetic fields and stronger turbulence lot the restricted azimuthal domain models π/2 and π/4 compared to the full 2π model. We show that for those models the Maxwell stress is larger due to strong axisymmetric magnetic fields generated by the αΩ dynamo. Large radial extended axisymmetric toroidal fields trigger temporal magnification of accretion stress. All models display a positive dynamo-α in the northern hemisphere (upper disk). The parity is distinct in each model and changes on timescales of 40 local orbits. In model 2π, the toroidal field is mostly antisymmetric with respect to the midplane. The eddies of the MRI turbulence are highly anisotropic. The major wavelengths of the turbulent velocity and magnetic fields are between one and two disk scale heights. At the midplane, we find magnetic tilt angles around 8°-9° increasing up to 12°-13° in the corona. We conclude that an azimuthal extent of π is sufficient to reproduce most turbulent properties in three-dimensional global stratified simulations of magnetized accretion disks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We performed three-dimensional magnetohydrodynamic simulations of planet migration in stratified disks using the Godunov code PLUTO, where the disk is turbulent due to the magnetorotational instability. We study the migration for planets with different planet-star mass ratios q = Mp/Ms. In agreement with previous studies, for the low-mass planet cases (q = 5 x 10-6 and 10-5), migration is dominated by random fluctuations in the torque. For a Jupiter-mass planet (q = p/Ms = 10-3 for Ms = 1M…), we find a reduction of the magnetic stress inside the orbit of the planet and around the gap region. After an initial stage where the torque on the planet is positive, it reverses and we recover migration rates similar to those found in disks where the turbulent viscosity is modeled by an α viscosity. For the intermediate-mass planets (q = 5 x 10-5, 10-4, and 2 x 10-4), we find a new and so far unexpected behavior. In some cases they experience sustained and systematic outward migration for the entire duration of the simulation. For this case, the horseshoe region is resolved and torques coming from the corotation region can remain unsaturated due to the stresses in the disk. These stresses are generated directly by the magnetic field. The magnitude of the horseshoe drag can overcome the negative Lindblad contribution when the local surface density profile is flat or increasing outward, which we see in certain locations in our simulations due to the presence of a zonal flow. The intermediate-mass planet is migrating radially outward in locations where there is a positive gradient of a pressure bump (zonal flow). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present full 2π global three-dimensional stratified magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) simulations of accretion disks. We interpret our results in the context of protoplanetary disks. We investigate the turbulence driven by the magnetorotational instability (MRI) using the PLUTO Godunov code in spherical coordinates with the accurate and robust HLLD Riemann solver. We follow the turbulence for more than 1500 orbits at the innermost radius of the domain to measure the overall strength of turbulent motions and the detailed accretion flow pattern. We find that regions within two scale heights of the midplane have a turbulent Mach number of about 0.1 and a magnetic pressure two to three orders of magnitude less than the gas pressure, while in those outside three scale heights the magnetic pressure equals or exceeds the gas pressure and the turbulence is transonic, leading to large density fluctuations. The strongest large-scale density disturbances are spiral density waves, and the strongest of these waves has m = 5. No clear meridional circulation appears in the calculations because fluctuating radial pressure gradients lead to changes in the orbital frequency, comparable in importance to the stress gradients that drive the meridional flows in viscous models. The net mass flow rate is well reproduced by a viscous model using the mean stress distribution taken from the MHD calculation. The strength of the mean turbulent magnetic field is inversely proportional to the radius, so the fields are approximately force-free on the largest scales. Consequently, the accretion stress falls off as the inverse square of the radius. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We study axisymmetric models of layered protoplanetary discs taking radiative transfer effects into account, and allowing for a residual viscosity in the dead zone. We also explore the effect of different viscosity prescriptions. In addition to the ring instability reported in the first paper of the series, we find an oscillatory instability of the dead zone, accompanied by variations of the accretion rate onto the central star. We provide a simplified analytical description explaining the mechanism of the oscillations. Finally, we find that the residual viscosity enables stationary accretion in large regions of layered discs. Based on results obtained with the help of a simple one-dimensional hydrocode, we identify these regions, and discuss conditions in which layered discs can give rise to FU Ori phenomena. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work we use the radiation–hydrodynamic code tramp to perform a two-dimensional axially symmetric model of the layered disc. Using this model we follow the accumulation of mass in the dead zone due to the radially varying accretion rate. We find a new type of instability which causes the dead zone to split into rings. This ‘ring instability’ works due to the positive feedback between the thickness of the dead zone and the mass accumulation rate. We give an analytical description of this instability, taking into account the non-zero thickness of the dead zone and deviations from the Keplerian rotational velocity. The analytical model agrees reasonably well with the results of numerical simulations. Finally, we speculate concerning the possible role of the ring instability in protoplanetary discs and in the formation of planets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigate the characteristic properties of self-sustained magneto-rotational instability (MRI) turbulence in low-ionized protoplanetary disks. We study the transition regime between active and dead zones, performing three-dimensional global non-ideal MHD simulations of stratified disks covering a range of magnetic Reynolds numbers between 2700 ≲ Rm ≲ 6600. We found converged and saturated MRI turbulence for Rm⪆5000 with a strength of αSS ∼ 0.01. Below Rm ≲ 5000, the MRI starts to decay at the midplane at first because the Elsasser number drops below 1. We find a transition regime between 3300⪅Rm⪅5000 where the MRI turbulence is still sustained but damped. At around Rm⪅3000, the MRI turbulence decays but could be reestablished due to the accumulation of the toroidal magnetic field or the radial transport of the magnetic field from the active region. Below Rm < 3000, the MRI cannot be sustained and is decaying. Here, hydrodynamical motions, like density waves, dominate. We observe anti-cyclonic vortices in the transition between the dead zone and the active zone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We study the effect of an imposed vertical magnetic field on the turbulent mass diffusion properties of magnetorotational turbulence in protoplanetary discs. It is well-known that the effective viscosity generated by the turbulence depends strongly on the magnitude of such an external field. In this Letter we show that the turbulent diffusion of the flow also changes, but that the diffusion coefficient does not rise with increasing vertical field as fast as the viscosity does. The vertical Schmidt number, i.e. the ratio between viscosity and vertical diffusion, can be close to 20 for high field magnitudes, whereas the radial Schmidt number is increased from below unity to around 3.5. Our results may have consequences for the interpretation of observations of dust in protoplanetary discs and for chemical evolution modelling of these discs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]