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To determine the relationship between psychological stress with cognitive outcomes in a multi-centre longitudinal study of people with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) we assessed three parameters of psychological stress (Recent Life Changes Questionnaire (RLCQ); the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) and salivary cortisol) and their relationship with rates of cognitive decline over an 18 month follow up period and conversion to dementia over a 5.5 year period. In 133 aMCI and 68 cognitively intact participants the PSS score was higher in the aMCI compared with control group but neither the RLCQ scores nor salivary cortisol measures were different between groups. In the aMCI group the RLCQ and the PSS showed no significant association with cognitive function at baseline, cognitive decline or with conversion rates to dementia but high salivary cortisol levels were associated with RLCQ scores and poorer cognitive function at baseline and lower rates of cognitive decline. No relationship was found between salivary cortisol levels and conversion rate to dementia. We conclude that psychological stress as measured by the RLCQ or PSS was not associated with adverse cognitive outcomes in an aMCI population and hypothesise that this may reflect diminished cortisol production to psychological stress as the disease progresses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• New methodology provided opportunities for stress-cortisol studies in daily life. • Methodological principles and recommendations are described. • Studies on associations between stress and cortisol in daily life are summarized. • Emphasis on momentary within-subject stress-cortisol associations in daily life. • Measurement, sampling, and statistical modeling challenges are discussed. Since cortisol measurement in saliva has been established, it has been used as an indicator of stress-related hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis activity. Concurrent development of methodological frameworks such as ambulatory assessment, ecological momentary assessment, and experience sampling have provided opportunities to combine both approaches in daily life research. The current review provides a summary of basic methodological principles and recommendations, as well as abstracts of findings of studies investigating momentary associations between stress and cortisol in daily life with an emphasis on within-subject associations (i.e. average covariance in repeated momentary assessments of stress and cortisol, and individual-specific deviations from the average covariance). Methodological challenges related to stress measurement, sampling principles, and appropriate statistical modeling are discussed, followed by a description of the historical development of studies on within-subject associations between momentary daily life stress and cortisol. The review concludes with a discussion of controversial methodological characteristics of these studies regarding operationalizations of stress, compliance, timing and frequency of stress and cortisol sampling, and reporting of effect sizes. Future research in this area would benefit from automated cortisol assessment, broadening of the scope of stress response measures, use of advanced statistical models that better account for dynamics in the stress process in daily life, and attempts to replicate findings. While previous studies of momentary stress and concurrent cortisol assessments have reliably confirmed some fundamental predictions from stress theory in daily life, future studies should aim at providing progress by testing innovative research questions and utilizing new technological developments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: This study analyzes the association of work-related stress with incident asthma and rhinitis in young adults with a special focus on gender-specific differences. Methods: Incident asthma, wheezing and rhinitis were measured in a cohort of 2051 young German adults (aged 16–18 years at baseline) recruited by the prospective population-based SOLAR study (Study of Occupational Allergy Risks). Work-related stress was measured by the Trier Inventory for the Assessment of Chronic Stress (TICS). Two TICS scales, work overload and work discontent, were analysed. Logistic regression was conducted to calculate odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). Results: In females, the odds for incident asthma were found to be 17% higher for each increase of the work discontent score by one point (OR 1.17, 95% CI 1.04–1.31). In males, no association was statistically significant. Incident rhinitis showed no association with any exposure variable. Conclusion: This study shows a link between work-related stress and incident asthma which seems to be confined to women. This study adds evidence about the association of work-related stress and asthma in young adults and can contribute to prevention for that particular age group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stress reactivity is a disposition that underlies individual differences in stress responses, thereby affecting vulnerability for the development of disease. Besides genetic and early postnatal environmental factors, stress reactivity has been shown to be influenced by an adverse prenatal developmental environment, but it is unclear if such effects persist into older age. We tested associations between fetal growth and perceived stress reactivity in 421 participants from the Hertfordshire Cohort at age 66-75 years. Regression analysis showed a U-shaped association between birth weight and perceived stress reactivity with increased levels of stress reactivity at the lower and upper end of the birth weight distribution. These effects were stable after adjustment for markers of early adversity and recent adversity and chronic stress. Although the effects were small, they are consistent with findings from studies in younger cohorts, and demonstrate that such effects can persist into older age. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cortisol awakening response (CAR) is a distinct facet of the circadian cortisol rhythm associated with various health conditions and risk factors. It has repeatedly been suggested that the CAR could be a result of the anticipated demands of the upcoming day (stress anticipation) and could support coping with daily life stress. In a sample of 23 healthy participants CARs were assessed on two consecutive days by measures of salivary cortisol upon awakening (S1) and 30 and 45 minutes later, which were aggregated to the area under the curve increase (AUCI). Stress anticipation was assessed immediately after awakening. On the same days, daily life stress and distress were assessed six times per day based on a quasi-randomized design using handheld computers. Associations were tested by day using regression analysis and standard multilevel/mixed effects models for longitudinal data. The CAR AUCI moderated the effect of daily life stress on distress; higher CAR increases were associated with attenuated distress responses to daily life stress on both days (day 1: p = .039; day 2: p = .004) adjusted for age, gender, sleep quality, time of awakening and oral contraceptive use. Lagged-effects and redundancy models showed that this effect was not due to prior-day CAR increases but specific for same day CARs. On day 2, associations between daily life stress and distress were stronger when individuals showed a higher S1 cortisol level, but this effect was similar for S1 on day 1, and the day 2 effect of S1 became non-significant when S1 on day 1 was controlled. No associations were found between stress anticipation and CARs. Findings indicate that the CAR increase is associated with successful coping with same-day daily life stress [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Individual differences in stress reactivity and cognitive appraisal processes are thought to explain part of the heterogeneity in stress responses. This study investigated how perceived typical stress reactivity and momentary cognitive appraisal affect salivary cortisol responses to a laboratory performance stressor with social evaluation in 66 male non-smokers. Multiphase latent growth curve models showed positive associations of perceived stress reactivity and primary appraisal with cortisol responses. An age-adjusted path analysis suggested that primary appraisal mediated the effect of perceived reactivity to social evaluation on cortisol responses, and that effects of primary appraisal were attenuated at high levels of perceived reactivity. Our results suggest that individuals who report that they typically show strong perceived emotional, cognitive and autonomic responses to social evaluative stress tend to perceive the prospect of having to perform in front of an audience as more threatening, and that this appraisal then leads to stronger cortisol responses. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Laboratory research has demonstrated that social-evaluative threat has an influence on the hypothalamus pituitary adrenal axis (HPA). In two studies using independent samples, we evaluated the anticipatory cortisol response to a written university examination (n = 35) and to an oral presentation (n = 34). Saliva samples were collected before and after the examinations and on a control day. Additionally, saliva samples were collected on the day before the written examination and a control day. Results revealed significantly elevated cortisol concentrations on the day prior to the examination; however, this effect occurred only in those participants who had their control day after the examination. Cortisol concentrations were elevated on the examination day, with increased concentrations before but not after the examination. For the oral presentation study, the results revealed substantially elevated cortisol concentrations before and after the oral presentation. Taken together the results indicate that written examinations cause a mild anticipatory HPA response while oral presentations induce a strong HPA response. These findings appear to support the idea that social-evaluative threat is an important factor determining the size of the HPA response to laboratory stressors as well as to real-life stressors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Stress and negative affective states are associated with cortisol in everyday life. However, it remains unclear what types of stressors and which affective states yield these associations, and the effect of trait anxiety is unknown. This study investigates the associations of specific task-related stressors and negative affective states in everyday life with salivary cortisol, and explores the mediating and moderating role of state negative affect and trait anxiety, respectively. Salivary cortisol, subjective stress, and state negative affect were measured three times a day on 2 days in 71 participants in everyday life, using a handheld computer to collect self-reports and time stamps and an electronic device to monitor saliva sampling compliance. Stress measures comprised the experience of performance pressure and failure during daily tasks; measures of negative affect comprised worn-out, tense, unhappy, and angry. Effects were tested using multilevel fixed-occasion models. Momentary performance under pressure was related to higher momentary cortisol measures, while mean task failure was related to lower daily cortisol concentrations. The association of performance pressure with cortisol varied between subjects, and this variation was explained by trait anxiety, yielding stronger associations in participants scoring high on trait anxiety. No evidence was found for a mediating role of state negative affect. These results describe the well-documented associations of everyday stressors and affect with salivary cortisol more precisely, suggesting that performance pressure is a significant condition related to short-term changes in cortisol. Subjects scoring high on trait anxiety seem to process stress-relevant information in a way that amplifies the association of performance pressure with reactions of the hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Summary Objectives The phenomenon of stress is understood as a multidimensional concept which can be captured by psychological and physiological measures. There are various laboratory stress protocols which enable stress to be investigated under controlled conditions. However, little is known about whether these protocols differ with regard to the induced psycho-physiological stress response pattern. Methods In a within-subjects design, 20 healthy young men underwent four of the most common stress protocols (Stroop test [Stroop], cold pressor test [CPT], Trier Social Stress Test [TSST], and bicycle ergometer test [Ergometer]) and a no-stress control condition (rest) in a randomized order. For the multidimensional assessment of the stress response, perceived stress, endocrine and autonomic biomarkers (salivary cortisol, salivary alpha-amylase, and heart rate) were obtained during the experiments. Results All stress protocols evoked increases in perceived stress levels, with the highest levels in the TSST, followed by Ergometer, Stroop, and CPT. The highest HPA axis response was found in the TSST, followed by Ergometer, CPT, and Stroop, whilst the highest autonomic response was found in the Ergometer, followed by TSST, Stroop, and CPT. Conclusions These findings suggest that different stress protocols differentially stimulate various aspects of the stress response. Physically demanding stress protocols such as the Ergometer test appear to be particularly suitable for evoking autonomic stress responses, whereas uncontrollable and social-evaluative threatening stressors (such as the TSST) are most likely to elicit HPA axis stress responses. The results of this study may help researchers in deciding which stress protocol to use, depending on the individual research question. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Objective: Previous data from our group and others have shown that salivary alpha-amylase activity increases in response to stress. It has been suggested that salivary alpha-amylase may be a marker for adrenergic activity. Less is known about other determinants of salivary alpha-amylase activation. The objective of the current study was to describe the diurnal pattern of salivary amylase and its determinants. Methods: Saliva samples were collected immediately after waking-up, 30 and 60min later, and each full hour between 0900 and 2000h by 76 healthy volunteers (44 women, 32 men). Compliance was controlled by electronic monitors. In order to control factors which might influence the diurnal profile of salivary alpha-amylase (such as momentary stress, mood, food, or body activity), at each sampling time point the subjects filled out a diary examining the activities they had carried out during the previous hour. Results: Salivary alpha-amylase activity shows a distinct diurnal profile pattern with a pronounced decrease within 60min after awakening and a steady increase of activity during the course of the day. Mixed models showed a relative independence of diurnal salivary alpha-amylase from momentary stress and other factors, but significant associations with chronic stress and mood. Conclusions: Our results suggest that diurnal profiles of salivary alpha-amylase are relatively robust against momentary influences and therefore may prove useful in the assessment of sympathetic nervous system activity. The findings underscore the need to control for time of day in studies using salivary alpha-amylase as a dependent variable. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]