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We investigated the intelligibility of written Danish for Swedes, and in particular the role of inherited words compared to non-Germanic loanwords. To assess whether shared loanwords are easier to understand than inherited words, we conducted two experiments. First, we tested the intelligibility of isolated Danish words (inherited words and loanwords) among Swedes. Second, we constructed two versions of a reading test, one with a large percentage of loanwords and one with few loanwords. Our results show that it is easier for Swedish listeners to identify and understand Danish cognate loanwords than inherited words and that texts with many loanwords are easier to read than texts with few loanwords. We explain these results by the fact that (recent) loans in Swedish have diverged less and are therefore more similar to the Danish counterparts than inherited words.

Two 2nd person verbal indexation forms are reconstructed back to Proto-Trans-Himalayan (PTH): a suffix #-n(a) (Bauman 1975; DeLancey 1989, 2014; H. Sun 1983, 1995; van Driem 1993; Watters 2002), and a prefix #tV- (Watters 2002; Jacques 2012; DeLancey 2011a, 2014). While #-n(a) is in paradigmatic distribution with other suffixal forms, the prefixal position of #tV-raises the question of its functional origin. DeLancey (2011a, 2014: 23) suggests hypothetically that #tV- finds its origin either in a non-finite nominalization or in an irrealis nominalization, “ideal for an impersonal 2nd person use: ‘One might [speak]’ rather than ‘You will [speak].’” Through the comparison of cognate tV- possessive and tV- nominalizer prefixes found in rGyalrongic, Kuki-Naga (Ao), and Sinitic, I propose that 2nd person #tV- can be traced back to a nominal possessive modifier such as one’s or someone’s: a man-type of R-impersonals (Malchukov & Siewierska 2011). Spreading to verbs, #tV- was used as a nominalizer indexing the notional S or A argument. With nouns and verbs alike, the referent of the possessor, whether 1st, 2nd, or 3rd person, was specific (Siewierska 2011: 62), accessible in discourse, anaphorically or deictically, regardless of the presence of a coreferential overt noun-phrase. The prefix #tV- started to be used in particular to address 2nd person indirectly, a development likely triggered by pragmatic motivations, i.e. politeness, before being reanalyzed as a 2nd person indexation marker.

The article analyzes some results of free associative experiments conducted by the author on the material of cognate languages and languages of different systems. The dynamics of the word meaning development in the Russian, Tatar and Bashkir languages in different age groups are considered in the article. The analysis of the quantitative parameters, such as the degree of relevance of the same word meaning, the number of values that were updated in the process of recognizing the word, the level of stereotyped responses is given. The interlingual analysis of the experimental data revealed constant changing and developing of child’s vocabulary in all studied languages but there is a difference between the Tatar and Bashkir examinees in the ways of word meaning identification and development. In the Tatar language the so-called "horizontal development of the child's vocabulary" is observed, when most of the polysemantic stimulus words’ meanings were not actualized and there is an extension within one and the same meaning. In the Bashkir language, on the contrary, many meanings of the polysemantic stimulus words were actualized, therefore we observe the so-called "vertical filling of the child's vocabulary", when new words enter the child's vocabulary with all the semantic features which adults already have.

Cognates – words that share form and meaning between languages – are processed faster than control words. However, is this facilitation effect merely lexical in nature or does it cascade to phonological/orthographic (i.e., sub-lexical) processes? This study compared cognate effects in spoken and typewritten production, which share lexical, but not sub-lexical processes. Dutch–English bilinguals produced English names for pictures representing Dutch–English cognates and control words in either the spoken or typewritten modality. Onset latencies were shorter and accuracy was higher for cognates vs. control words and this effect was similar in both modalities. Compared to controls, total latencies in the written modality were similar for cognates with much cross-linguistic overlap, but longer for ones with less overlap. Additionally, error analysis showed that cognates were more affected by L1 interference than controls. These results suggest two different cognate effects: one at the lexical and one at the sub-lexical level.

The present research featured the family of words as a complex unit within the framework of military terminology. The article introduces a new method for studying high-frequency English-language military terms, where terminological units are systematized by the family of words. English-language military terminology is constantly changing. As a result, it remains understudied and requires structuring. The research objective was to structure military vocabulary as blocks, each representing a certain family of words. Military term blocks were selected from modern lexicographic sources. The study involved etymological, semantic, and word-formation analyses. The family of words proved to be a microsystem that combines grammatical, word-formation, and lexical relations. The authors structured cognate high-frequency English military terms as microsystems, i.e. families of words with peaks -bat- , -defend- , -arm- , etc.

Published: 17 June 2021 Language perception studies on bilinguals often show that words that share form and meaning across languages (cognates) are easier to process than words that share only meaning. This facilitatory phenomenon is known as the cognate effect. Most previous studies have shown this effect visually, whereas the auditory modality as well as the interplay between type of similarity and modality remain largely unexplored. In this study, highly proficient late Spanish–English bilinguals carried out a lexical decision task in their second language, both visually and auditorily. Words had high or low phonological and orthographic similarity, fully crossed. We also included orthographically identical words (perfect cognates). Our results suggest that similarity in the same modality (i.e., orthographic similarity in the visual modality and phonological similarity in the auditory modality) leads to improved signal detection, whereas similarity across modalities hinders it. We provide support for the idea that perfect cognates are a special category within cognates. Results suggest a need for a conceptual and practical separation between types of similarity in cognate studies. The theoretical implication is that the representations of items are active in both modalities of the non-target language during language processing, which needs to be incorporated to our current processing models. This research was supported by the Basque Government through the BERC 2018-2021 program and by the Spanish State Research Agency through BCBL Severo Ochoa excellence accreditation SEV-2015-0490. CF and ENB are supported by MINECO predoctoral grants from the Spanish government (BES-2016-077169) and (BES-2016-078896), respectively. CDM is further supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness [PSI2017-82941-P; RED2018-102615-T], the Basque Government [PIBA18-29], and through a Grant from the H2020 European Research Council [ERC Consolidator Grant ERC-2018-COG-819093].

Four hypotheses regarding the impact of discourse context on cross-language lexical activation were tested. Highly-proficient, Spanish–English bilinguals read all-English paragraphs containing non-identical and identical cognates or noncognate controls while their eye-movements were tracked. There were four paragraph conditions based on a full crossing of semantic bias from the topic sentence and sentence containing the critical word. In analyses in which cognate status was treated categorically there was an interaction between global bias and cognates status such that the observed inhibitory effects of cognate status were attenuated in global-neutral contexts. Follow-up analyses on the non-identical cognates in which orthographic overlap was treated continuously revealed a U-shaped function between orthographic overlap and processing time, which was more pronounced in global-neutral contexts. The overall pattern of findings is consistent with a combined operation of resonant-based and feature-restriction mechanisms of context effects.

This study investigates the non-negating negator m̄ in Taiwanese. With respect to its function, this study argues that it is neither an intensifier nor a rhetorical marker. Furthermore, contrary to prevalent intuition, the combination m̄-tō is not parallel to the ostensible cognate bújiù in Mandarin Chinese. Instead, the non-negating m̄ is an intersubjective speech-act adverbial affix attaching to the head of FocP (realized as tō or tsiah) that takes scope over whatever follows. Typologically, this study uncovers another use of non-negating negation in natural languages, and consequently challenges the enterprise pursuing a unified analysis for the phenomena of the so-called expletive negation.

This study aims to identify some of the phonetics change rules of Kaera and Teiwa languages. Therefore, this research uses mix methods. Quantitative methods used to determine the level of differences of Kaera and Teiwa languages. Qualitative methods are used to determine the rules about phonetic changes of both languages. Data collection uses advanced techniques and records with the main instrument 200 Swadesh vocabulary. The data collected were then analyzed using the dialectometry technique to determine the level of differences of Kaera and Teiwa languages, while the Padan Intralingual Crowley technique to determine the rules about phonetic changes of Kaera and Teiwa language. The result of dialectometry analysis shows that the level of differences of Kaera and Teiwa languages ​​is 29—35,5%, meaning the two languages ​​are included in the cognate category. Furthermore, in the vocabulary of Kaera and Teiwa language cognates, zeroization, namely aferesis and apokop are found. Keywords: Kaera, Teiwa, phonetic change

The study examined the role of Chinese-Japanese cognate awareness in Japanese vocabulary acquisition among college Chinese learners of Japanese. Thirty-seven college-level students participated in ...

This research explores patterns of lexical activation of both languages of a bilingual when producing spoken words. Specifically, it investigates the influence of within- and cross-language measures of phonological neighbourhood, on the English picture naming performance of a diverse group of French (L1) – English (L2) late bilinguals. A novel phonological neighbourhood density measure was used that took into account the phonological and lexical constraints of this sample of late bilinguals. Results showed that both within- and cross-language neighbours influenced picture naming performance and that the length of exposure to L2 and familiarity of the target modulated these effects, with both facilitatory and inhibitory effects observed. Additionally, the previously well-attested cognate facilitation effect decreased with L2 language exposure. These results support interactive models of word production, within a language non-specific view of lexical access, and show the dynamic nature of a bilingual’s lexical connections.

Based on argument indexation properties, this paper offers a model of four verb classes for Geshiza and Stau, two closely related and endangered Horpa lects spoken in Sichuan. Despite increased awareness and interest in Horpa, no exhaustive classification of verbs from the viewpoint of argument indexation has been offered. Even though argument indexation itself has been discussed in previous scholarship, the striking diversity of argument indexation patterns has not been addressed. It is shown that both Geshiza and Stau, the two lects chosen as the sample for this study, share the same verb classes, even though the class assignment of individual cognate verbs occasionally varies. The paper also describes how semantic and animacy features inherent in verbs, most prominently compatibility with human S and P arguments resulting in compatibility with speech act participants, play a crucial role in verb class assignment. Establishing a framework for Horpa verb classes helps in the ongoing descriptive work of these languages. In addition, it offers new material for typological studies of argument indexation.

The inherited Proto-Slavic feminine nouns in nom. sg. *‑y, oblique *‑ъvare conventionally thought to go back to one source only, namely Proto-Indo- European stems in *‑uh‑. However, a handful of previous studies have already demonstrated the possibility that other inherited items could join this paradigm by phonologically developing a nom. sg. in *‑y from other sources (particularly *‑ōs). Accordingly, in the present article, it is hypothesized that the well-known PSl. noun *ljuby *ljubъve f. ‘love’ may go back to an amphikinetic s‑stem *lewbʰ‑ōs. Such a reconstruction makes it possible to explain a number of otherwise problematic features of the complex of *ljuby, such as: 1) the enigmatic OCS acc. sg. ljuby (for expected ljubъvь) in the collocations (prě)ljuby (sъ)tvoriti or (prě)ljuby dějati ‘commit adultery’; 2) the unexpected presence of *‑s‑ in the Balt. cognate, Lith. liaupsė̃ f. ‘praise, adoration’; 3) the occurrence of PSl. *‑y as an abstract marker (a function in which PIE amphikinetic s‑stems in *‑ōs are securely, even if marginally, found, particularly in the domain of emotions and mental states - cf. Gk. αἰδώς αἰδόος f. ‘reverence, awe’, ἔρως *ἔροος m. ‘love, desire’, Ved. bhiyás‑, Av. biiah‑ m. ‘fear’ - while no such function can convincingly be reconstructed for a formation in *‑u‑h₂).

This study investigates incidental vocabulary learning through captioned or subtitled videos and examines whether and how different learner- (prior vocabulary knowledge) and word-related factors (i.e., frequency of occurrence, cognateness, and imagery) influence learning gains from watching videos. Low-intermediate Dutch-speaking learners of French (N=86) took part in a four week intervention program. They were assigned to a subtitles group, a captions group, or a control group (who only took the tests). Vocabulary learning was measured by means of form and meaning recognition, as well as meaning recall tests. Results revealed that participants learned approximately 15% of the vocabulary they could have learned. Both treatment groups outperformed the control group in the meaning recognition test, but only the captions group outperformed the control group in the meaning recall test. Learning gains were mediated by cognateness with significantly higher odds to recall and recognize a cognate on the posttest than a noncognate. Frequency of occurrence and prior vocabulary knowledge had a positive effect on L2 learners’ ability to recall and recognize the meaning of the target words. A positive relationship was also found between target words that were visually represented in the video and learners’ meaning recognition scores for those words. ispartof: Calico Journal vol:37 issue:3 pages:233-253 status: published

This article is entitled "The Degree of Relationship among Teochew, Hakka, and Cantonese". This research is based on theory in Historical Comparative Linguistics. This theory is also called diachronic theory, which involves the analysis of the form and regularity of changes in common languages ​​such as those accompanied by sound changes, to reconstruct the language of the past, the ancient language (proto) that lived on thousands of years before that. The aim of this research is to calculate the cognate percentages of relationship for Teochew (TC), Hakka (HK), and Cantonese (CO). The research method used is quantitative-qualitative method. Data collection method and technique used refer to the method of proficiency and recording. The data analysis method and technique used respectively are qualitative and quantitative methods with lexicostatistic techniques. In lexicostatistics, language kinship is seen based on the similarities of sounds that exist in the lexicon that appears in these languages. This phonetic similarity will be the basis of whether a word in one language has a relationship with another language. The indicator used to determine related words is the basic vocabulary called the Sino-Tibetan Swadesh basic vocabulary which amounts to 207 words that are considered to exist in all languages ​​in the world. After analyzing the 207 words, it is found that TC and HK have 51 related words and are considered in the subgroup of clump or stock (25%), TC and CO have 60 related words and are considered in the subgroup of clump or stock (29%), in addition to HK and CO have 119 words and are considered in the subgroup of family (57%).

Introduction. The article addresses the reflection of ideas about gender social roles in the conceptual and linguistic worldview of men and women. Materials and methods. The analysis is based on the material of the linguistic experi-ment conducted with native speakers of such English and Ukrainian. Results. The results of the experiment reveal the differences in the perception by the native speakers of English and Ukrainian of gender social roles. As the analysis of the material shows, in the Ukrainian society, the public sphere is associated to a greater de-gree with the professional activities of men and women, and there is a high degree of orientation of women towards motherhood. In English, outside the family, mainly male roles are defined, and the roles of women are mainly family and are in the sphere of personal, emotional ties. Discussion and Conclusions. The analysis of social roles shows that the Ukrainian lin-guistic community, to a greater extent than the English-speaking, is characterized by an orientation towards the traditional patriarchal family, in which a woman is the keeper of the hearth, the organizer of male consumption, and the man is the owner and head of the family. The results obtained in the course of the experiment enable to establish a systemic cor-relation between the language structure and the social structure, to establish correla-tions between the language phenomena and the gender of the communicants.

We discuss two unrelated languages, Jingulu (Mirndi, non-Pama-Nyungan) and Mudburra (Ngumpin-Yapa, Pama-Nyungan), which have been in contact for 200–500 years. The language contact situation is unusual cross-linguistically due to the high number of shared nouns, tending to an almost shared noun lexicon. Even more unusually, this lexicon was formed by borrowing in both directions at a relatively equal rate. The aim of this paper is to extend the bidirectional noun borrowing results to the verbal systems of Jingulu and Mudburra to determine whether a similarly high rate of borrowing occurred, and if so, whether it was similarly bidirectional. The high degree of shared Jingulu–Mudburra verb forms was first observed by Pensalfini who claimed that Jingulu and Mudburra lexical verbs are almost entirely cognate across these two languages. This paper aims to quantify the degree of shared verb forms and determine the direction of borrowing between Mudburra and Jingulu. We first establish shared forms and then determine the origins of the forms based on a comparative database of verbs from geographic and phylogenetic neighbours (Wambaya, Gurindji and Jaminjung).

This article introduces the concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI) to a criminological audience. After a general review of the phenomenon (including brief explanations of important cognate fields such as ‘machine learning’, ‘deep learning’, and ‘reinforcement learning’), the paper then turns to the potential application of AI by criminals, including what we term here ‘crimes with AI’, ‘crimes against AI’, and ‘crimes by AI’. In these sections, our aim is to highlight AI’s potential as a criminogenic phenomenon, both in terms of scaling up existing crimes and facilitating new digital transgressions. In the third part of the article, we turn our attention to the main ways the AI paradigm is transforming policing, surveillance, and criminal justice practices via diffuse monitoring modalities based on prediction and prevention. Throughout the paper, we deploy an array of programmatic examples which, collectively, we hope will serve as a useful AI primer for criminologists interested in the ‘tech-crime nexus’.

The current work investigates whether language dominance predicts transfer of skills across cognitive-linguistic levels from the native language (Spanish) to the second language (English) in bilingual preschoolers. Sensitivity to cognates (elephant/elefante in English/Spanish) and metalinguistic awareness (MLA) have both been shown to transfer from the dominant to the nondominant language. Examining these types of transfer together using a continuous measure of language dominance may allow us to better understand the effect of the home language in children learning a majority language in preschool. Forty-six preschool-aged, Spanish-English bilinguals completed English receptive vocabulary and metalinguistic tasks indexing cognate effects and MLA. Language dominance was found to predict crosslinguistic (cognate) facilitation from Spanish to English. In addition, MLA skills also transferred from Spanish to English for children with lower English proficiency, and no transfer of MLA was evident for children with higher English proficiency. Altogether, findings suggest that transfer from a dominant first language to a nondominant second language happens at linguistic and cognitive-linguistic levels in preschoolers, although possibly influenced by second language proficiency. The current study has implications for supporting the home language for holistic cognitive-linguistic development.

It has been suggested that human communities that share their basic cultural foundations evince no remarkable differences concerning the characterization of core concepts. However, the small but existing differences among them reflect their sociocultural diversity. This study compares 219 concrete concepts common to both Spanish and English semantic feature norms in order to assess whether core features of concepts follow a universal or cultural language-specific pattern. Concepts were compared through a geometric technique of vector comparison in the Euclidean n-dimensional space alongside the calculation of the network’s degree of centrality. The role of cognate status was also explored by repeating the former analysis separating cognate from noncognate words. Taken together, our data show that languages are structurally similar independent of the cognate status of words, further suggesting that there are some sort of core features common to both languages.

Purpose Our 1-year longitudinal study tracked the development of cognate awareness among second (L2) and third language (L3) learners of French in French immersion in Grades 1 and 2 to explore the impact of orthographic overlap and cognate status (true vs. false) on children's ability to recognize cognate relationships. We also assessed the impact of French L2/L3 status on performance. Method We compared performance on three conditions (true cognates with same and similar spellings, false cognates with same spellings) within and across grades. We used a direct measure of cognate awareness that required children ( n = 81) to distinguish true from false cognates presented orally and in print. Results Overall, Grade 1 children failed to recognize cognate relationships between true cognates with similar spellings, but successfully recognized true cognates with same spellings. Performance on all conditions increased significantly between Grades 1 and 2. The greatest improvement was seen on true cognates with similar spellings. Performance on false cognates was inferior to performance on true cognates with same spellings in Grade 1, and inferior to performance on both same and similar spelled true cognates in Grade 2. No differences were found due to L2/L3 status. Conclusions Among sequential learners of L2/L3 French in the early stages of additional language learning, cognate awareness is impacted by the degree of orthographic overlap, as well as by cognate status. Children's ability to recognize cross-language orthographic and semantic relationships improves substantially across the early elementary grades. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.16821106

The current research was completed and thanks to financial aid provided by the doctoral research grant FPU16/01748 to AI and grants from the Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovacion y Universidades-Fondos Feder to TB (PGC2018-093786-B-I00) and DP (PCIN-2015-165-C02-01 and PSI2017-89324-C2-1-P) and from the Feder Andalucia to TB (A-CTS-111-UGR18 and P20.00107)., This study used a word dictation task to examine the influence of a variety of factors on word writing production: cognate status (cognate vs. non-cognate words), orthographic (OS) and phonological similarity (PS) within the set of cognate words, and language learning background [late bilinguals (LBs) with academic literacy and formal instruction in English and Spanish, and heritage speakers (HSs) with academic literacy and formal instruction only in English]. Both accuracy and reaction times for the first key pressed by participants (indicating lexical access), and the time required to type the rest of the word after the first keypress (indicating sublexical processing) was assessed. The results revealed an effect of PS on the dictation task particularly for the first keypress. That is, cognates with high PS were processed faster than cognates with low PS. In contrast to reading studies in which PS only revealed a significant effect when the OS between languages was high (O + P+ vs. O + P−), in the dictation to writing task, the phonology had a more general effect across all conditions, regardless of the level of OS. On the other hand, OS tended to be more influential for typing the rest of the word. This pattern is interpreted as indicating the importance of phonology (and PS in cognates) for initial lexical retrieval when the input is aural. In addition, the role of OS and PS during co-activation was different between groups probably due to the participants’ linguistic learning environment. Concretely, HSs were found to show relatively lower OS effects, which is attributed to the greater emphasis on spoken language in their Spanish language learning experiences, compared to the formal education received by the LBs. Thus, the study demonstrates that PS can influence lexical processing of cognates, as long as the task demands specifically require phonological processing, and that variations in language learning experiences also modulate lexical processing in bilinguals., Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovacion y Universidades-Fondos Feder FPU16/01748, Feder Andalucia PGC2018-093786-B-I00 PCIN-2015-165-C02-01 PSI2017-89324-C2-1-P, A-CTS-111-UGR18 P20.00107

The bilingual language control literature generally assumes that cross-language interference resolution relies on inhibition of the non-target language. A similar approach has been taken in the bidialectal language control literature. However, there is little evidence along these lines for proactive language control, which entails a control process that is implemented as an anticipation of any cross-language interference. To further investigate the possibility of proactive inhibitory control, we examined the effect of language variety preparation time, by manipulating the cue-to-stimulus interval, on parallel language activation, by manipulating cognate status. If proactive language control relies on inhibition, one would expect less parallel language activation (i.e., a smaller cognate facilitation effect) with increased proactive inhibitory control (i.e., a long cue-to-stimulus interval). This was not the case with either bilinguals or bidialectals. So, the current study does not provide evidence for proactive inhibitory control during bilingual and bidialectal language production.

While differential object marking (DOM) is productive in Spanish, Portuguese does not have a DOM system, except for limited cases. DOM is variable in Spanish, where the presence of accusative a is conditioned by linguistic factors such as animacy, definiteness, and specificity of the object. This chapter explores DOM variation in monolingual Spanish in Montevideo, the Uruguayan capital, and the variety spoken by Spanish–Portuguese bilinguals in Rivera, a town on the Uruguayan–Brazilian border. Based on comparative sociolinguistics, it analyzes the extent to which Portuguese–Spanish bilinguals replicate or differ from the Spanish monolingual patterns. The comparison of overall frequency, factor group rankings, and constraint rankings shows that bilinguals do not diverge from monolinguals due to Portuguese, since both dialects share similar probabilistic factors constraining a-marking in all contexts. This study brings counter evidence to the generalized assumption that contact-induced linguistic change is often the result of prolonged contact between cognate languages.

The way of coding letter position has been extensively assessed during the recognition of native words, leading to the development of a new generation of models that assume more flexible letter position coding schemes compared to classical computationalmodels such as the interactive activation (IA) model. However, determining whether similar letter position encoding mechanisms occur during the bilingual word recognition has been largely less explored despite its implications for the leading model of bilingual word recognition (multilink) as it assumes the input-coding scheme of the IA model. In this study, we aimed to examine this issue through the manipulation of the position of the deviant letter of cognate words (external and internal letters). Two experiments were conducted with Catalan–Spanish bilinguals (a masked priming lexical decision task and a two-alternative forced-choice task) and their respective monolingual controls. The results revealed a differential processing for the first letter in comparison to the other letters as well as modulations as a function of language cue, suggesting amendments to the input-coding scheme of the multilink model., Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology, European Commission European Commission POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007653, Spanish Government PCIN-2015-165-C02-02 RED2018-102615-T, Research Promotion Program of the Universitat Rovira i Virgili 2018PFR-URV-B2-32

This study compared Spanish-English bilinguals’ and English monolinguals’ VOT values for /b, d, g/ in cognates and non-cognates. Twenty-six young adult participants (fourteen bilinguals and twelve ...

This article provides an overview of the development of psychoanalysis in China based on literature and personal observations. We situate this history in the context of the cognate disciplines of p...

Contains fulltext : 221345.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Closed access) To test the BIA+ and Multilink models' accounts of how bilinguals process words with different degrees of cross-linguistic orthographic and semantic overlap, we conducted two experiments manipulating stimulus list composition. Dutch–English late bilinguals performed two English lexical decision tasks including the same set of cognates, interlingual homographs, English control words, and pseudowords. In one task, half of the pseudowords were replaced with Dutch words, requiring a 'no' response. This change from pure to mixed language list context was found to turn cognate facilitation effects into inhibition. Relative to control words, larger effects were found for cognate pairs with an increasing cross-linguistic form overlap. Identical cognates produced considerably larger effects than non-identical cognates, supporting their special status in the bilingual lexicon. Response patterns for different item types are accounted for in terms of the items' lexical representation and their binding to 'yes' and 'no' responses in pure vs mixed lexical decision. 9 p.

In the Paradox of the Ravens, a set of otherwise intuitive claims about evidence seems to be inconsistent. Most attempts at answering the paradox involve rejecting a member of the set, which seems to require a conflict either with commonsense intuitions or with some of our best confirmation theories. In contrast, I argue that the appearance of an inconsistency is misleading: ‘confirms’ and cognate terms feature a significant ambiguity when applied to universal generalisations. In particular, the claim that some evidence confirms a universal generalisation ordinarily suggests, in part, that the evidence confirms the reliability of predicting that something which satisfies the antecedent will also satisfy the consequent. I distinguish between the familiar relation of confirmation simpliciter and what I shall call ‘predictive confirmation’. I use them to formulate my answer, illustrate it in a very simple probabilistic model, and defend it against objections. I conclude that, once our evidential concepts are sufficiently clarified, there is no sense in which the initial claims are both plausible and inconsistent.

Based on the number of words per meaning across the Indo-European Swadesh list,Pagel et al. (2007)suggest that frequency of use is a general mechanism of linguistic evolution. We test this claim using within-language change. From the IDS (Key & Comrie 2015) we compiled a comparative word list of 1,147 cognate pairs for Classical Latin and Modern Spanish, and 1,231 cognate pairs for Classical and Modern Greek. We scored the amount of change for each cognate pair in the two language histories according to a novel 6-point scale reflecting increasing levels of change from regular sound change to external borrowing. We find a weak negative correlation between frequency of use and lexical change for both the Latin-Spanish and Classical-Modern Greek language developments, but post hoc tests reveal that low frequency of use of borrowed words drive these patterns, casting some doubt on frequency of use as a general mechanism of language change.

When bilinguals produce words in one language, their translation equivalents in the other language are thought to be activated as well. A common assumption is that this parallel co-activation produces interference, which slows down word retrieval. The current study aimed to evaluate the assumption of lexical interference during word retrieval by testing whether late Portuguese–English bilinguals were slower to name pictures in their native language when they knew the word in their second language compared to when they only knew the native language label. Instead of interfering with production, knowing the second-language label facilitated speed of word retrieval in the native language for both cognate and non-cognate translation-equivalent pairs. We suggest that using the second language may provide an indirect frequency boost for translation-equivalent words in the native language. This frequency boost has both long-term and short-term effects, strengthening connections to native-language labels when the translation equivalent is retrieved.

(Japanese Vocabulary Acquisition through Anime: A Case Study on Dwimeilinda) This study attempted to investigate the influence of watching anime on Japanese vocabulary acquisition from Dwimeilinda. The study used a mixed-method. There are three collection data in this study; the first data is the interview; the second is observation; the last is the aural test. There are two questions from this study: first, how did she acquire the vocabulary through anime? Second. How is the influence of watching anime on her Japanese vocabulary acquisition? The results showing there are some strategies that she uses in acquiring Japanese vocabulary. First repetition, second cognate and third is mind mapping. The study also found that watching anime can influence her phonological vocabulary knowledge and daily expression.

This study aimed to provide an empirical evidence of NL Switching as compensatory strategy of EFL school students in their written communication. The focus was to identify, describe, and explain the linguistic realization and patterns of the NL switching to compensate for their missing language knowledge and proposing its pedagogical implication. The data were in the form of words, phrases, and sentences reflecting NL switching as compensatory strategy, which were elicited from the students' English free composition and results from interview. The data were identified, described, and explained based on relevant perspectives. The results indicated that the lexical switching as compensatory strategy in communication was in the form of Indonesian naturalized borrowed words from Arabic, Indonesian words, Indonesian cognate, and Indonesian abbreviation, while the syntactical switching was in the form of Indonesian collocation, Indonesian construction, and Indonesian conjunction. The findings of this study provide empirical evidence on NL switching in Indonesian EFL school students' written communication.

This study investigated the extent to which phonological and orthographic overlap between the two languages of bilinguals predicts word processing abilities in their dominant and non-dominant languages. Forty-four English-dominant L1 English-L2 Spanish speakers and Spanish-dominant Spanish heritage speakers performed a lexical decision task while reading words in English and Spanish. We calculated orthographic and phonological similarity of cognate and noncognate words using the Levenshtein distance measure. Results showed that both bilingual groups benefited from orthographic similarity when reading Spanish and English words, whereas a facilitative effect was restricted to Spanish words that shared phonology across languages. These findings suggest a different contribution of phonological and orthographic similarity in bilingual word recognition, independently of language dominance.

A materialidade, ou o que alguns teóricos preferem identificar como materiais, vem sendo cada vez mais assunto de discussão e investigação. Embora esses autores sejam muito cuidadosos em especificar o que querem dizer com tais termos, o assunto exige maior esclarecimento do que recebera até agora. Isso faz com que seja um candidato ideal para o tríplice-escalonado esclarecimento proposto por C. S. Peirce em “Como tornar nossas ideias claras” e que daí em diante foi utilizado por ele para, diante do propósito em questão, tornar adequadamente claras suas próprias ideias. Assim como considerava inatingível a certeza absoluta, ele julgava também a clareza absoluta estar fora de alcance. Mesmo assim, ele ofereceu sua máxima pragmática como o nível mais alto de esclarecimento conceitual. Para inúmeros fins, aderir a essa máxima nos permite esclarecer nossas ideias de forma adequada. Embora ele seja enfático em sublinhar as limitações de definições abstratas (o segundo ou nível intermediário de clareza), ele aprecia o valor de tais definições, das quais são na maior parte do tempo definições verbais (pois, em definições abstratas, trata-se de traduzir uma palavra ou expressão em outras palavras). Se tomarmos as práticas bem-sucedidas do investigador experimental, porém, subitamente vemos a necessidade de traduzir nossas palavras não em outras palavras, mas sim, em hábitos de ação. Além do mais, o primeiro nível de clareza (aquele de familiaridade tácita) é muitas vezes menosprezado ou ignorado. Este grau de clareza é, no entanto, de uma importância muito maior do que lhe é atribuído pelos comentadores, e por vezes, pelo próprio Peirce. Este artigo, portanto, é uma busca de esclarecer o significado de materialidade e termos cognatos, usando as sugestões de Peirce para cumprir esta tarefa. Destaca-se a necessidade de esclarecimento pragmático, sem denegrir, porém, o valor de familiaridade tácita ou definições abstratas. Espero mostrar, de uma só vez, a força das sugestões metodológicas de Peirce e o significado de alguns termos elusivos.

In this paper, we utilize negative polarity tag questions in order to assess to what extent discourse-pragmatic variables are susceptible to language contact induced changes. Based on a comparison of forms and functions of negative tags in the varieties spoken by Portuguese-Spanish bilinguals in a community on the Uruguayan-Brazilian border with the one spoken by monolinguals in the Uruguayan capital, we aimed at assessing to what extent any differences in this variable behavior may be affected by contact with Portuguese. Our results indicate that, despite the high permeability of discourse-pragmatic features in contact situations attested in the literature and the presumed tendency for cognate languages to converge, the forms and functions of negative tags in bilingual Spanish did not radically differ from the monolingual variety. We found, instead, an intricate pattern of convergences and divergences that challenges the presupposed assumptions about extreme permeability of cognate discourse pragmatic systems in contact.

Diglossic speakers of two varieties of a language switch between their language varieties as bilinguals do between their languages, instead of having the otherwise typical probabilistic distributions of variants across varieties. To investigate the mechanisms involved in diglossic language control and lexical access, we conducted two switching experiments, in which participants who were highly proficient in the two varieties, or languages, named pictures in Swiss German or Standard German (Experiment 1), or in Swiss German or Tamil (Experiment 2), with pictures having cognate or non-cognate names in Swiss German and Standard German. The overall magnitude of switch costs in diglossic switching was comparable to switch costs in bilingual switching. Switch costs were asymmetric, favouring switching into the sociolinguistically preferred variety (Swiss German) in Experiment 1 and the slightly less dominant language (Tamil) in Experiment 2. Cognate gains were higher for Swiss German than Standard German and occurred even for Tamil responses. These results are compatible with a model that assumes that diglossic switching is influenced by similar mechanisms of language control as bilingual switching, that inhibitory processes are involved, that the amount of lexical inhibition depends on the relative strengths of lexical representations and on top-down control, and that diglossic cognates have integrated lexical representations.

Abstract :This study is conducted to find out the pronunciation errors made by the first semester students of English Education Department in STKIP CBN. In conducting the data, the researcher gave the pre-test to the informants, then; the researcher recorded the performances and transcribed the data. The secondary data was gathered from the interview. Based on the data analysis The researcher counted that there are nine types of errors pronunciation made by the subjects. The first error is the subjects substituted a vowel /æ/ and six consonants /kj/,/tʃ/,/ʃ/,/dʒ/ and /ʒ/ with Indonesian sounds. The second error is the subjects substituted some English vowels into Indonesian vowel. The third error is word cognates cases. The fourth is language interference. The fifth is pronouncing the silent consonant /h/. The sixth error is Deleting or omitting some consonants that appeared at the end of some English words. The seventh error is the subjects pronounced the silent consonant /t/ in the word “often”. The eighth error is the subjects added the consonant /r/ at the word, that word doesn’t required the consonant /r/. The last error is some subjects seemed to generalize the pronunciation of the past tense morpheme which is ended by a bound morpheme /ed/. This research is founded that there are three causes of students’ pronunciation error made in speaking English. The first is an interference errors, the second is an intra lingual errors and the last is a developmental error.

This study examines the relationship between German second language (L2) learners’ awareness of the German lexical stress assignment system and their ability to accurately assign stress to cognate words with predictable lexical stress. Participants were 31 adult L2 German learners from three groups: native English speakers with a range of German proficiency levels (N = 10), native French speakers with intermediate German proficiency (N = 10), and native French speakers with advanced German proficiency (N = 11). They produced target items in a carrier phrase and then indicated both which syllable they stressed and where stress is supposed to fall. Finally, they provided a rule for assigning stress to each word. Stress production accuracy was similar across the groups, regardless of L1 or L2 proficiency. Participants’ ability to verbalize where they had placed stress was a significant predictor of stress assignment accuracy. They produced relatively few rules overall, and the rules they produced wer...

Cross-linguistic lexical similarity in the form of cognates and loanwords has been shown to positively impact second language learning and use, as well as performance on tests of lexical kn...

The increase in global migration and the prioritization of English as an international language have resulted in science learning environments that include students whose primary language differs from the language of instruction. This worldwide phenomenon is not limited to geographical regions but occurs where diverse populations representing languages, cultures, ethnicities, and nationalities exist. English Language Learners (ELLs) in these classrooms face the task of learning science while learning to comprehend and participate in the discourse of science. Science teachers must therefore be strategic in providing experiences that will facilitate the development of ELLs’ literacy skills to do and engage science learning. We present how one middle school science teacher, engaging in practitioner inquiry, tapped into the potential of deliberate cognate instruction to support the learning of science vocabulary within the context of inquiry-based science teaching. The 7th grade teacher adapted a graphic organizer that served to focus on ELLs learning core ideas and through deliberate cognate instruction connected their Spanish language to English. Cognates, in conjunction with other teaching strategies, proved to be an effective way for the simultaneous learning of disciplinary content knowledge and vocabulary words. The knowledge generated from this practitioner inquiry had immediate impact and though not generalizable can offer insights beyond this immediate classroom. The Spanish-English cognate was a viable tool in bridging the language differences; however, we acknowledge that limitations will occur in classrooms where the languages may not have common roots to support cognate instructions.

This longitudinal study investigated to what extent the acquisition of cognates among bilingual children depends on the degree of cross-language similarity and intensity of exposure to the tested language, and whether children’s sensitivity to cognates with different degrees of cross-language similarity changes over time. For three consecutive years, 120 Frisian-Dutch bilingual children were tested on their Frisian receptive vocabulary. The sample was split into three groups that differed with respect to intensity of exposure to Frisian at home. In the receptive vocabulary task, cross-language similarity was systematically manipulated through four cognate categories, differing in their degree of overlap between Frisian and Dutch. The results showed a gradual cognate facilitation effect for children with a low intensity of exposure to Frisian. The higher the degree of cross-language similarity, the better their performance. This implies that the co-activation of the two languages depends on the degree of cross-language similarity. Over time, their performance improved the most on non-identical cognates with a cross-linguistic phonological regularity between Frisian and Dutch. This suggests that as they grow older, children with a low intensity of exposure to Frisian become better at recognizing regularities in the overlap of the Frisian and Dutch phonological systems.

Research on L3 acquisition has highlighted the importance of cross-linguistic influence in adult language acquisition. Specifically, the Typological Primacy Model (TPM) for L3 acquisition predicts full transfer from the most structurally similar background language at the initial stages of acquisition. However, it is unclear how language background might affect transfer. Furthermore, it is not known how applicable the TPM is to instructed L3 language acquisition. Consequently, this study examines Spanish/English bilinguals, their knowledge of mood distinctions in subjunctive-dominant contexts in Spanish and their transfer of that knowledge at the beginning stages of instructed L3 Portuguese acquisition. Data from eight L1 Spanish, 22 L2 Spanish, and 38 Spanish heritage bilinguals were analyzed to determine if the groups differed in their knowledge of mood distinctions, first in Spanish and subsequently in Portuguese. Results indicate a significant role of language background on all tasks.

Knowing academic words is essential to achieving success at university, so reliable tests are needed to estimate students' academic vocabulary. Recently, attention has been drawn to how cognates may overestimate vocabulary test results, making such tests unsuitable for placement. Here, we investigated whether a combination of results from two tests could be used for academic placement purposes despite cognate inflation effects. We assessed the receptive vocabulary knowledge of 106 Polish English majors (B2 level or higher) via the Vocabulary Size Test (VST; Nation & Beglar, 2007) and a tailor-made checklist Academic Vocabulary Test (AVT). The comparison of cognates and non-cognates in both tests evinced a clear cognate inflation, which distorted the scores. However, a regression analysis indicated that scores in the VST significantly predicted students' scores in the AVT. Furthermore, cluster analyses combining both tests’ scores identified the VST threshold at or above which successful performance in the AVT was highly likely. Thanks to the identification of this threshold, we argue that the VST can be reliably used for placement purposes with English majors in Poland. We also explain why some low-frequency VST bands become disproportionally easy due to the existence of cognates typically present across languages.

The article is devoted to the study of communicative strategies that are used in the texts of appreciation letters sent to volunteers and their linguistic manifestation in American English. The material for the research is borrowed from the websites of various American volunteer organizations. The following methods are used in the research: the descriptive method including classification, systematization and generalization, and that of contextual analysis. The author singles out linguistic tactics used by representatives of volunteer centers to achieve the communicative aim. The article shows that the main linguistic tactic in this type of business correspondence is that of appreciation, which is realized with the help of the verb to thank and other cognate words. Moreover, a number of additional communicative aims, strategies and linguistic expressions are identified.

There are numerous studies demonstrating facilitated processing of cognates relative to noncognates for bilinguals, providing evidence that bilingual lexical access is language nonselective. We tested whether cross-language activation affects comprehension of larger units of meaning, focusing specifically on comprehension of anaphoric references. Highly proficient, Spanish-English bilinguals read sentences either in English (Experiment 1) or Spanish (Experiment 2) while their eye movements were recorded. Sentences consisted of an initial clause with 2 nouns that were either cognates or noncognates, and a later clause with an anaphor that either referred to the first or second noun. In the English experiment, cognate status facilitated selection of the sentence's foundational noun, reflected by shorter reading times for cognate nouns in the first position. Processing of pronouns was facilitated when they referred to cognates, reflected by higher skipping rates and shorter reading times. Final selection of cognate referents was also facilitated, reflected by total reading shorter total reading times, but only when the pronoun referred to the first noun. In the Spanish experiment, total reading times for cognate nouns were shorter, irrespective of their order of mention, reflecting a general cognate facilitation effect that was not affected by which noun was selected as the foundational structure. Spillover fixations from anaphors referring to cognates were shorter than noncognates, but only when they were the second-mentioned noun, suggesting that cognate status affected coreferencing for the more recently encountered noun. Implications for theories of cross-language activation and anaphoric reference are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

When bilinguals name pictures while in ‘monolingual mode’, we expect that under conditions of language-constraint and no cognate facilitation, factors influencing lexical retrieval in monolinguals ought to exert similar effects on bilinguals. To this end, we carried out a L1-only naming task on early Hindi–English bilinguals. Results of linear mixed effects analysis reveal AoA, Familiarity, Image Agreement and Codability (availability of alternate names) to be the most significant predictors of lexical retrieval speed for early bilinguals, confirming our expectations. However, we report, for the first time, a by-subject variation in Codability for bilinguals. Implications of the results are discussed in the context of current theories of bilingual lexical access and competition. In preparation for this study, Hindi norms from bilinguals for items in the Snodgrass and Vanderwart set have been established, which will be of use for stimuli selection in experimental studies involving bilinguals.

Words that share form and meaning across two or more languages (i.e., cognates) are generally processed faster than control words (non-cognates) by bilinguals speaking these languages. This so-called cognate effect is considered to be a demonstration of language non-selectivity during bilingual lexical access. Still, research up till now has focused mainly on visual and auditory comprehension. For production, research is almost exclusively limited to speech, leaving written production out of the equation. Hence, the goal of the current study was to examine whether bilinguals activate representations from both languages during typewriting. Dutch-English bilinguals completed second-language written sentences with names of displayed pictures. Low-constraint sentences yielded a cognate facilitation effect, whereas high-constraint sentences did not. These findings suggest that co-activation of similar words across languages also occurs during written production, just as in reading and speaking. Also, the interaction effect with sentence constraint shows that grammatical and semantic sentence restrictions may overrule interlingual facilitation effects.

The study of sound change has focused overwhelmingly on segmental change, while general and typological knowledge about tone change (excluding tonogenesis) lags far behind. This paper probes several interrelated reasons for this. First, much work on tone languages includes only superficial or even no treatment of tone, and even when analyzed, tone systems may lend themselves to differing analyses that would be compared in historical linguistic work. As a result, reconstructions of presumably tonal protolanguages often omit tone, limiting the study of tone change. Furthermore, tone is often reported to change faster or more sporadically than segments, leaving more changes to unravel and/or less-regular sound correspondences to handle. Even when tonal correspondences are robust, the phonetic distance between cognate tones may be so great that the phonetic properties of reconstructable elements may be especially indeterminate. After discussing these interrelated challenges, they are illustrated with a case study based on recent documentation of the Chatino languages of Mexico. While some families of tone languages have received significant diachronic study, many of the world’s tone languages remain minimally documented or poorly understood. Therefore, endangered tone languages may provide crucial information for better understanding tone change – and sound change in general.