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It's familiar to us from our thinking and deliberating that we can more or less confident about the truth of a proposition. For instance, you might be more confident that it will be overcast tomorrow than you are that it will rain. States of confidence are most familiar to us at the level of our thought. Are there states of confidence below the level of thought? Are states of confidence assigned by our psychological sub-systems? Recent discussions in the philosophy of perception and philosophy of psychology raise the question of whether states of confidence are assigned in perceptual systems. A perceptual system can represent an object as red, but can it also assign a level of confidence to the object’s being red?This dissertation argues that perceptual systems do assign levels of confidence. To address the question, we must have some sense for what sort of state a level of confidence. We must explicate the notion of a level of confidence, in order to identify central psychological signatures and roles that such a state plays. Such signatures clarify what it would take for a perceptual state to count as a level of confidence. Having explicated the notion, we must then turn to empirical science. We must look carefully at perceptual psychology and allied fields to see whether perceptual systems in fact have states that satisfy the signatures. I follow this methodology.In explicating levels of confidence, I draw on both commonsense understanding and normative disciplines that invoke levels of confidence, such as decision theory and formal epistemology. I identify two core signatures of levels of confidence. One signature is roughly that increasing levels of confidence in p tend to lead to an increased reliance, by subsequent psychological processes, on the truth of p. The other signature is that increasing levels of confidence in p tend to be formed on the basis of information that better supports the truth of p.I also argue, on empirical grounds, that perceptual systems have sensory capacities for signaling objective probabilities. Most saliently, they have capacities for tracking the objective probability that the perceptual representations they produce are veridical. A perceptual representation as of red may be objectively more likely in one circumstance than in another to be veridical. Perceptual systems have capacities for signaling this probabilistic difference specifically. I argue for such states by considering experimental results in multimodal cue integration. I embed my account in broader accounts of objective probability and sensory signaling.I then argue that the probability signaling states constitute levels of confidence in perceptual systems. The probability signaling states guide the use of perceptual representations in a way that satisfies the first signature. Because they track different probabilities of a representation's veridicality, they satisfy the second signature. I close by considering what other sorts of sensory phenomena might be explained in terms of confidence, by examining capacities for ``approximate number representation."

The study determined the impact of the STEM Strand implementation of senior high schools in the Division of Zambales. The study was limited to fifty secondary public-school teachers in Zone II.The study revealed that majority teacher-respondents, are generally young with only a minimum number of trainings attended. STEM trends, there were more males than females and a larger are married. There were no significant differences in the success of the STEM schools in Palauig, Botolan and Iba in the following domains:college preparation;integrated and innovative technology use; STEM-rich informal experiences; connections with industry and the world of work; well-prepared STEM teachers and professionalized teaching staff and positive school community and culture of high expectations for all. Based on the summary of findings and the conclusions arrived at, the researcher has offered the following recommendations that professional learning in the form of learning action cells and lesson study should be provided to relatively novice STEM teachers in order to expose them to effective instructional strategies and impact their actual classroom practices as opposed to cascading in-service trainings. Greater involvement of these partners through planning, implementation, and review should be targeted instead of only involving them for immersion activities. A more intensive evaluation of the STEM implementation following the Context-Input-Process-Product approach should be conducted to strengthen and confirm the findings of the study. A more study that would monitor the whole system as opposed to the present investigation’s focus on teacher perception would lend greater credence to the results.

Epistemic injustice sits at the intersection of ethics, epistemology, and social justice. Generally, this philosophical term describes when a person is wrongfully discredited as a knower; and within the clinical space, epistemic injustice is the underlying reason that some patient testimonies are valued above others. The following essay seeks to connect patterns of social prejudice to the clinical realm in the United States: illustrating how factors such as race, gender identity, and socioeconomic status influence epistemic credence and associatively, the quality of healthcare a person receives.After describing how epistemic injustice disproportionately harms already vulnerable patients, I propose a narrative therapy intervention. This intervention can help providers re-frame their relationships with patients, in such that they come to view patients as valuable sources of unique knowledge. Though I identify this intervention as a valuable step in addressing clinical epistemic injustice, I call upon medical educators and practitioners to further uplift the voices, perspectives, and stories of marginalized patients.

Purpose This paper aims to explore the power of appeals based on fear mixed with challenge co-designed with vulnerable consumers in motivating the use of credence services. Design/methodology/approach A qualitative phase (Study 1), comprising focus groups of self-identified at-risk gamblers, revealed a series of conceptual themes for advertising stimuli that were then tested empirically (Study 2) on the likelihood to use credence services in a gambling context. Individual characteristics such as tolerance of ambiguity were also tested for their potential moderating influence. Findings In comparison to appeals based on single emotions, fear mixed with the challenge has a significantly stronger impact on intentions to use credence services in at-risk gamblers. Findings confirm the indirect positive impact of fear mixed with the challenge via sequential mediators of involvement with advertising and attitude towards credence service advertising. The moderating role of tolerance of ambiguity on credence service use intentions was confirmed. Originality/value The potential of a fear mixed with challenge appeal to motivate vulnerable consumers to seek credence services has not been investigated to date. The findings contribute to both the transformative service research and advertising literature streams by providing valuable insights into promotional campaigns aimed at vulnerable consumers such as at-risk gamblers.

Are religious beliefs psychologically different from matter-of-fact beliefs? Many scholars say no: that religious people, in a matter-of-fact way, simply think their deities exist. Others say yes: that religious beliefs are more compartmentalized, less certain, and less responsive to evidence. Little research to date has explored whether lay people themselves recognize such a difference. We addressed this question in a series of sentence completion tasks, conducted in five settings that differed both in religious traditions and in language: the United States, Ghana, Thailand, China, and Vanuatu. Participants everywhere routinely used different verbs to describe religious versus matter-of-fact beliefs, and they did so even when the ascribed belief contents were held constant and only the surrounding context varied. These findings support the view that people from diverse cultures and language communities recognize a difference in attitude type between religious belief and everyday matter-of-fact belief.

According to an increasingly popular view in epistemology and philosophy of mind, beliefs are sensitive to contextual factors such as practical factors and salient error possibilities. A prominent ...

Background & Aims: A range of experimental paradigms claim to measure the cognitive processes underpinning alcohol use, suggesting that heightened attentional bias, greater approach tendencies and reduced cue-specific inhibitory control are important drivers of consumption. This paper identifies substantial methodological shortcomings within this broad domain of research, however, and exemplifies them in studies focused specifically on alcohol-related attentional bias. Argument/Analysis: We highlight five main methodological issues: (i) the use of inappropriately matched control stimuli; (ii) opacity of stimulus selection and validation procedures; (iii) a credence in noisy measures; (iv) a reliance on unreliable tasks; and (v) variability in design and analysis. This is evidenced through a review of alcohol-related attentional bias (64 empirical articles, 68 tasks), which reveals the following: only 53% of tasks utilise appropriately matched control stimuli; as few as 38% report their stimulus selection and 19% their validation procedures; less than 28% used indices capable of disambiguating attentional processes; 22% assess reliability; and under 2% of studies were preregistered. Conclusions: Substantial improvements are required to improve the methodological rigour of cognitive alcohol research. To facilitate this, we provide a practical guide for future research: we advocate the use of well-matched and validated experimental stimuli, the development of reliable cognitive tasks and explicit assessment of their psychometric properties, and careful consideration of behavioural indices and their analysis. Further, we discuss open science principles that can facilitate replication and reproducibility in alcohol research, thereby enhancing trust in a field that has significant implications for public health and policy.

Burgeoning research on workplace dignity has captured the interest of organizational-behavior scholars. However, research to date has either focused on the conditions that contribute to workplace dignity or how individuals experience and respond both to dignity and dignity threats. Little is known about the psychological and behavioral consequences of dignity in the workplace. Building on the resource caravans principle of conservation of resources (COR) theory, this study attempts to bridge this gap and investigates ‘how’ employees’ perceptions of workplace dignity might affect their discretionary work effort. Two-wave survey data were collected from 180 employees in the development sector organizations in Pakistan and the bootstrap mediation analysis using PROCESS macro was performed to test the hypothesis. Whilst workplace dignity, organization-based self-esteem, and discretionary work effort were found to be positively associated with each other, organization-based self-esteem mediated the workplace dignity–discretionary work effort relationship. More specifically, workplace dignity positively predicted discretionary work effort through increasing organization-based self-esteem. As a pioneering study examining how workplace dignity affects discretionary work effort, this research not only advances the relevant literature, but also lends credence to COR theory’s relatively less scrutinized resource caravans principle. Implications for theory, research, management practice, and strategic human resource management are also discussed.

Purpose This study aims to examine how the relative importance of a search versus a credence attribute, strategically addressed in a flu vaccination advertisement, varies as a function of message sidedness. A search attribute was designed to highlight the affordability of flu shots, and a credence attribute addressed the potential health benefits of flu vaccination. Design/methodology/approach Two experiments were designed to explore how the relative persuasiveness of search versus credence attributes varies as a function of message sidedness in the context of flu vaccination advertising. In Experiment 1, the search–credence attribute type was manipulated by addressing either the affordability (e.g. “Get free flu shots”) or indirect health benefits of flu vaccines (e.g. “Improve herd immunity/community health”). In Experiment 2, an individual-level credence attribute (e.g. “Strengthen your immune system”) was created and compared to the other two attribute conditions used in Experiment 1: a search versus a societal credence versus an individual credence attribute. Findings Experiment 1 (N = 114) revealed the relative advantage of a search attribute (free flu shots) in the two-sided persuasion. Experiment 2 (N = 193) indicated that the persuasive impact of a societal credence attribute (herd immunity/community health) was greater in the two-sided message condition (vs one-sided message condition). Originality/value Relatively little research has examined how consumers respond to strategic flu prevention and vaccination messages promoting either credence or search attributes. Motivated by the need to investigate the relative effectiveness of stressing “herd immunity” versus “free flu shots” in flu vaccination advertising, this study examines how the effects of these distinct attributes on flu vaccination judgments differ between two-sided (e.g. “No vaccine is 100% effective”) and one-sided persuasion.

In Unsettled Thoughts, Julia Staffel argues that non-ideal thinkers should seek to approximate ideal Bayesian rationality. She argues that the more rational you are, the more benefits of rationality you will enjoy. After summarizing Staffel's main results, this paper looks more closely at two issues that arise later in the book: the relationship between Bayesian rationality and other kinds of rationality, and the role that outright belief plays in addition to credence. Ultimately, I argue that there are several roles that outright belief might play, and I explore different ways that these roles for belief might fit together.

In the peer disagreement debate, three intuitively attractive claims seem to conflict: there is disagreement among peers on many important matters; peer disagreement is a serious challenge to one's own opinion; and yet one should be able to maintain one's opinion on important matters. This article shows that contrary to initial appearances, we can accept all three of these claims. Disagreement significantly shifts the balance of the evidence; but with respect to certain kinds of claims, one should nonetheless retain one's beliefs. And one should retain them even though these beliefs would not be supported by the new total evidence if one didn't already hold them.

Studies consistently suggest that emotional intelligence and parenting styles are associated with self-esteem, although validation has relatively been based on correlation analysis. Using a sample of 252 respondents in Nigeria, the present study examined the relationships among parenting styles, emotional intelligence, and self-esteem with the aim of generating knowledge that transcends the nature and extent of their correlations. A bivariate analysis identified significant correlations: emotional intelligence (i.e., self-emotion appraisal, others’ emotion appraisal, uses of emotion, and regulation of emotion), authoritative parenting, and authoritarian parenting significantly positively correlated with self-esteem. There was no significant correlation between emotional intelligence and parenting styles. Results of the independent-samples t test indicated that emotional intelligence and self-esteem differed by gender. Specifically, women were more likely than men to report high self-emotion appraisal, others’ emotion appraisal, and uses of emotion. Similarly, women were more likely than men to report high self-esteem. Using multiple regression analysis, emotional intelligence and parenting styles were associated with self-esteem: being a student, emotional intelligence (i.e., self-emotion appraisal and uses of emotion), and authoritative parenting were associated with self-esteem. Emotional intelligence accounted for a larger effect on self-esteem than did parenting styles. In general, findings lend credence to the relevance of authoritative parenting in the development of self-esteem and suggest that, among components of emotional intelligence, uses of emotion and self-emotion appraisal may be considered in facilitating improvement of self-esteem among young adults at the developmental stage of increasing self-esteem. Implications of findings for research, education, and practice are discussed.

Drawing upon the social domain theory regarding adolescents’ information management and the model of family change on cultural orientation toward self-construal development, this qualitative study investigated Singaporean adolescents’ emotional disclosure and secrecy with parents in their negotiation of the development of self-construal. Eighty-two adolescents aged 11–19 described their negative emotional disclosure and secrecy in relation to three factors: (1) the social contexts of emotional experiences, (2) the justifications for disclosure and secrecy, and (3) parents’ reactions. Four contexts of emotional experiences, three overarching categories of justifications, and three primary types of parental reactions were identified. Singaporean adolescents’ emotional disclosure and secrecy examined through the confluence of three factors revealed the processes, successes and challenges associated with the development of autonomous-related self. Findings lend credence to the connection of the social domain theory and model of family change—specifically, the confluence of three factors involving the domains of information, justifications and parental reactions in understanding adolescents’ negotiation of self-construal development through the management of their emotional lives in developed Asian societies with an emphasis on academic achievement. Importantly, results revealed that Singaporean parents need to make adaptations in the way of their autonomy-granting for developing adolescents’ self-reliance within the school context and have implications for education stakeholders in helping adolescents develop a healthy sense of self.

This study unpacks the question of subjective wellbeing (SWB) inequality between partners in South Africa in the context of declining overall SWB inequality. The analysis, using the National Income Dynamics Study panel for the period 2012–2016, reveals through the decomposition of Theil inequality indices that the reduction in overall SWB inequality has been on the back of reducing inter-household inequality, while intra household inequality between partners has in fact increased in the period of study. The zero-inflated beta regression as well as Oaxaca Blinder decomposition provides evidence of the existence of an intra-household SWB Kuznets curve. The relationship between SWB inequality and household income that emerges from this analysis shows that the reliance on improving household level variables like household income and access to public amenities is not sufficient in reducing intra-household SWB inequality. Further, education based positive assortative mating is found to reduce SWB inequality between partners lending credence to the argument that power dynamics plays an important role in determining the SWB distribution within the household. The findings of the study points to the need to focus on intra-household power dynamics to reduce the SWB gap between partners.

Dutch secondary school pupils seldom speak the foreign language in class, citing anxiety as a primary factor (Haijma, 2013). Implementing improvisational drama techniques (IDTs), however, could help ameliorate this situation by generating positive affective reactions, such as confidence and joy, and in turn stimulate pupils to speak. The concept IDT in this study contains two key elements. Firstly, participants take on roles in fictitious situations. Secondly, the activities must elicit spontaneous speech as to offer language learners opportunities to practice real-life communication, which is central to the goal of this research. The question driving this study was: What types of IDTs induce positive affective reactions among pupils and, as such, have the potential to stimulate spoken interaction in FL classrooms? The study yielded 77 IDTs associated with positive affective reactions through a literature review and an analysis of student teacher reflections on their IDT use in their English classrooms. This combined evidence lends credence to the conception that it could be the essence of improvisational drama that generates positive reactions, rather than the type of activity—the essence being an invitation to enter a fictional world, combined with the improvisational element that readies learners for spontaneous interactions.

I generalize the notion of a conditional attitude by bringing together two topics of inquiry. One is the ordinary inquiry into conditional attitudes. The other topic is the inquiry into the attitude of thinking that a proposition is likely, or having a high credence in a proposition. For instance, what is it to intend to go to the game if it is likely that Kershaw pitches? Being likely that Kershaw pitches is the condition of the attitude. Given a natural position about statements like “It is likely that Kershaw pitches,” the target attitude looks different from ordinary conditional attitudes.

The current research extends the application of implicit theories to consumer behavior. We engage the search, experience, credence (SEC) framework to study the impact of consumer lay belief on attribute types and time orientation on the choice of a product/service. We conduct one pre-test, and three experiments to explore the key hypotheses. Our findings show that incremental (vs. entity) theorists prefer a product/service when it is positioned in terms of experience (vs. credence) over credence (vs. experience) attributes. This effect is mediated by attribute importance. The preference of entity and incremental theorists is maintained under present-time orientation. Under future-time orientation, incremental theorists still maintain their preference, but entity theorists demonstrate a preference reversal and favour the experience over credence attributes. The findings contribute to theoretical and managerial extensions of the existing literature on consumer behaviour.

As artificial intelligence (AI) systems become more sophisticated and play a larger role in society, arguments that they should have some form of legal personality gain credence. The arguments are typically framed in instrumental terms, with comparisons to juridical persons such as corporations. Implicit in those arguments, or explicit in their illustrations and examples, is the idea that as AI systems approach the point of indistinguishability from humans they should be entitled to a status comparable to natural persons. This article contends that although most legal systems could create a novel category of legal persons, such arguments are insufficient to show that they should.

PurposeThough humble leaders can draw from their own resources to nurture employees' sense of well-being, this impact appears neglected in the leader humility literature. The aim of this study is to unfold how and when leader humility contributes to the well-being of employees in the public sector.Design/methodology/approachParticipants in our research came from wards (grassroot level governments) in Vietnam.FindingsThe results lent credence to role of job crafting in mediating the relationships between leader humility and the physical, psychological and social well-being among public employees. The positive nexus between leader humility and job crafting was found to be stronger when employees demonstrated low levels of public service motivation.Originality/valueThis study advances the understanding of public sector employees' well-being via the predictive role of leader humility and the mediation mechanism of job crafting.

According to the recent Perceptual Confidence view, perceptual experiences possess not only a representational content, but also a degree of confidence in that content. The motivations for this view are partly phenomenological and partly epistemic. We discuss both the phenomenological and epistemic motivations for the view, and the resulting account of the interface between perceptual experiences and degrees of belief. We conclude that, in their present state of development, orthodox accounts of perceptual experience are still to be favoured over the perceptual confidence view.

I examine three attitudes: belief, faith, and hope. I argue that all three attitudes play the same role in rationalizing action. First, I explain two models of rational action—the decision-theory model and the belief-desire model. Both models entail there are two components of rational action: an epistemic component and a conative component. Then, using this framework, I show how belief, faith, and hope that p can all make it rational to accept, or act as if, p. I conclude by showing how my picture can explain how action-oriented commitments can be rational over time, both in the face of counterevidence and in the face of waning affections.

This study aimed to determine the effectiveness of a professional development program on the use of a STEM-based 5E Inquiry Learning Model in enhancing the learning of STEM-based Inquiry Learning Model among 78 in- and pre-service science teachers. The topic electric circuit was used as the context of the study. Given the aim and the exploratory nature of this study, a triangulation mixed-methods design was employed: One-group pretest-posttest design which involved a single group that was pre-tested, exposed to the STEM-based 5E Inquiry Learning Model, and post-tested. This was triangulated by the qualitative responses from the participants’ reflections. The analysis of the quantitative dataset using the paired samples t-test indicated that the post-test mean score was statistically significantly higher than the pre-test mean score and that the effect size obtained was educationally significant. Further analyses by gender and participants’ teacher status, indicated a non-significant difference, giving credence that this result was truly the outcome of the intervention (treatment) effect instead of any disguised effect. The analysis of qualitative data through a recursive process resulted in the crystallization of three overarching key themes: Enhanced knowledge on the content used, empowered pedagogical skills on STEM-based Inquiry Learning, and heightened classroom management skill on promoting collaboration in the classroom.

In this manuscript, we investigate the central role of perceived frontline service employee (FSE) authenticity and the process by which it impacts purchase intentions, taking into account the represented brand's authenticity. While brand authenticity has previously been shown to enhance consumer outcomes, we find that FSE authenticity is a separate significant predictor of purchase intentions. Further, we find that FSE authenticity enhances purchase intentions by increasing perceived trust and perceived quality. However, this finding only holds for brands that do not emphasize their authenticity, indicating that brand managers should differentially emphasize FSE authenticity based on their brand's positioning. Furthermore, we investigate the robustness of these effects across both experience and credence services, and find that FSE authenticity is especially important in credence service contexts.

Visual ecology is the study of how different species perceive their visual surroundings. We introduce the concept to consumer research and show that the micro-ecology of product packaging has a predictable visual ecology. Analyzing images of 158 consumer products, we show that brand-related packaging elements are visually conspicuous in terms of visual salience, surface size, and distance to center, while elements related to credence characteristics like sustainability and nutrition are visually inconspicuous. We show that the visual ecology of product packaging is a strong driver of consumer attention independently of consumer goals. Our findings suggest that the reason consumers regularly ignore sustainability and nutrition information is not lack of motivation, but because their visual environment acts as a barrier to attending this information. We conclude with a prediction for consumer attention given a policy intervention to increase the conspicuity of sustainability and nutrition information.

Many theorists hold that outright verdicts based on bare statistical evidence are unwarranted. Bare statistical evidence may support high credence, on these views, but does not support outright belief or legal verdicts of culpability. The vignettes that constitute the lottery paradox and the proof paradox are marshalled to support this claim. Some theorists argue, furthermore, that examples of profiling also indicate that bare statistical evidence is insufficient for warranting outright verdicts.I examine Pritchard's and Buchak's treatments of these three kinds of case. Pritchard argues that his safety condition explains the insufficiency of bare statistical evidence for outright verdicts in each of the three cases, while Buchak argues that her treatment of the distinction between credence and belief explains this. In these discussions the three kinds of cases – lottery, proof paradox, and profiling – are treated alike. The cases are taken to exhibit the same epistemic features. I identity significant overlooked epistemic differences amongst these three cases; these differences cast doubt on Pritchard's explanation of the insufficiency of bare statistical evidence for outright verdicts. Finally, I raise the question of whether we should aim for a unified explanation of the three paradoxes.

Purpose The purpose of this study is to propose that in-factory experiences transfer into souvenir evaluation, and the process is moderated by customers’ commitment and readiness cumulated in daily life. Design/methodology/approach The study collected data from 398 tourists of tea leaves tourism factories. Findings The results reveal that interactive experience is a dominant determinant of perceived souvenir value. Interactive and hedonic experiences reinforce each other to create perceived souvenir value. Low commitment diverts customers to emphasize hedonic experience, whereas low readiness constraints customers’ resources, and hence, depreciates value delivered from interactive experience. Research limitations/implications Intrinsic hedonic values are weaker predictors than extrinsic ones for perceived value in a leisure tourism setting. Merchandize quality is perceived and judged together with interpersonal interactions in the industrial tourism contexts, instead of objectively evaluating by customers themselves. Practical implications The experience or credence attribute of tea leaves is difficult for ordinary customers to evaluate, leaving most of the consumption value to be fostered by the firm. Perceived souvenir value could transfer to routinized purchase behavior, it is more imperative turning initial tourists into committed loyal customers by relationship management strategies than merely creating hedonic surroundings. Originality/value The study contributions are twofold: first, the study extends the influence of tourist experience to the perceived souvenir value; second, the study verifies the interaction effects of in-factory experiences and customer roles on perceived souvenir value.

Experiments in psychology often target hypothetical constructs to test some causal hypothesis or theory. In light of this goal, it is pertinent to use a manipulation that actually changes the focal hypothetical construct, and only that construct. In assessing whether such manipulation “success” can be assumed, researchers often include manipulation validity checks in their designs—a measure of the focal construct which should be responsive to the manipulation. One interpretation of a positive manipulation check is that it lends credence to a particular causal interpretation of a phenomenon. Scrutinizing the results of such manipulation checks supposedly enables a more stringent test of a causal hypothesis. This paper submits that manipulation checks do not improve our inferences to causal explanations, but may in practice result in weaker hypothesis tests. Rather than being useful, manipulation checks are at best uninformative, but more likely compromise the appraisal of a causal hypothesis. The second half of this paper advocates four methodological heuristics, offered as alternatives to manipulation validity checks, to more severely test causal hypotheses. The heuristics call for a burgeoning focus on (a) assessing the specificity of manipulations, (b) evaluating theoretical risk, (c) attempts to cast doubt on alternatives, and (d) appraising the relative merits of explanations. I conclude that rather than relying on manipulation checks as a ‘Band-Aid’ method to alleviate validity concerns, inferential rigor can be improved by virtue of these heuristics.

There is ample evidence that violations of injunctive norms impact ordinary causal attributions. This has struck some as deeply surprising, taking the ordinary concept of causation to be purely descriptive. Our explanation of the findings—the responsibility view—rejects this: we contend that the concept is in fact partly normative, being akin to concepts like responsibility and accountability. Based on this account, we predicted a very different pattern of results for causal attributions when an agent violates a statistical norm. And this pattern has been borne out by the data (Sytsma et al. 2012; Livengood et al. 2017; Sytsma n.d.-a). These predictions were based on the responsibility attributions that we would make. In this paper, I extend these previous findings, testing responsibility attributions. The results confirm the basis of our predictions, showing the same pattern of effects previously found for causal attributions for both injunctive norms and statistical norms. In fact, the results for responsibility attributions are not statistically significantly different from those previously found for causal attributions. I argue that this close correspondence lends further credence to the responsibility view over competing explanations of the impact of norms on causal attributions.

Choice history effects describe how future choices depend on the history of past choices. In experimental tasks this is typically framed as a bias because it often diminishes the experienced reward rates. However, in natural habitats, choices made in the past constrain choices that can be made in the future. For foraging animals, the probability of earning a reward in a given patch depends on the degree to which the animals have exploited the patch in the past. One problem with many experimental tasks that show choice history effects is that such tasks artificially decouple choice history from its consequences on reward availability over time. To circumvent this, we use a variable interval (VI) reward schedule that reinstates a more natural contingency between past choices and future reward availability. By examining the behavior of optimal agents in the VI task we discover that choice history effects observed in animals serve to maximize reward harvesting efficiency. We further distil the function of choice history effects by manipulating first- and second-order statistics of the environment. We find that choice history effects primarily reflect the growth rate of the reward probability of the unchosen option, whereas reward history effects primarily reflect environmental volatility. Based on observed choice history effects in animals, we develop a reinforcement learning model that explicitly incorporates choice history over multiple time scales into the decision process, and we assess its predictive adequacy in accounting for the associated behavior. We show that this new variant, known as the double trace model, has a higher performance in predicting choice data, and shows near optimal reward harvesting efficiency in simulated environments. These results suggests that choice history effects may be adaptive for natural contingencies between consumption and reward availability. This concept lends credence to a normative account of choice history effects that extends beyond its description as a bias., Author summary Animals foraging for food in natural habitats compete to obtain better quality food patches. To achieve this goal, animals can rely on memory and choose the same patches that have provided higher quality of food in the past. However, in natural habitats simply identifying better food patches may not be sufficient to successfully compete with their conspecifics, as food resources can grow over time. Therefore, it makes sense to visit from time to time those patches that were associated with lower food quality in the past. This demands optimal foraging animals to keep in memory not only which food patches provided the best food quality, but also which food patches they visited recently. To see if animals track their history of visits and use it to maximize the food harvesting efficiency, we subjected them to experimental conditions that mimicked natural foraging behavior. In our behavioral tasks, we replaced food foraging behavior with a two choice task that provided rewards to mice and humans. By developing a new computational model and subjecting animals to various behavioral manipulations, we demonstrate that keeping a memory of past visits helps the animals to optimize the efficiency with which they can harvest rewards.

Even with the expanding burden of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health, our approach to mental health care remains largely reactive rather than preventive. This trend is problematic because the majority of outpatient visits to primary care providers across the country is related to unmet mental health needs. Positive psychology has the potential to address these issues within mental health care and provide primary care providers with strategies to serve their patients more effectively. Positive psychology has many frameworks like hope, which can be measured using simple questionnaires in the waiting room. Moreover, there is a growing body of neurobiological evidence that lends credence to positive psychology concepts in the context of differential neuronal activation patterns. Many positive psychological instruments not only have high construct validity but also have connections to observable neurobiological differences tied to differences in psychosocial functioning. Despite the current evidence, we still need robust research that explores if such psychometric measurements and related interventions lead to clinically significant and favorable health outcomes in patients outside of controlled environments.

Space experiment “Content” is held to test quantitative content-analysis of crew contacts with the Mission control center (MCC) personnel as an objective method of operational remote evaluation of crew member psychophysiology, as well as in-group and intergroup (crew–MCC) interactions. The methodology of the experiment is based on the concept that communicative behavior manifests the individual coping strategies. These strategies are considered to be effective or ineffective in context of their influence on the success in person’s activities, which often depends on the quality of in-group communication. In the experiment, we studied the effect of various factors (including mission duration, occurrence of significant events and problem situations, or changes in the crew composition) on the crew oral communication features. The results lend credence to the concept of the “final breakthrough” and reveal a trend towards more frequent manifestations of the third-quarter phenomenon as mission duration extends to one year. Problem situations may increase both the number of ineffective coping strategies and the number of effective coping strategies favorable for mission accomplishment despite pressures and challenges. The observation that a change in status within the crew modifies the style, length, and frequency of contacts with MCC confirms the concept of the commander being the crew’s spokesman. Acquisition and systematization of documented crew statements, together with the identification and description of important speech phenomena, provide basis for future automation of crew–MCC content-analysis.

The assertion that the leadership style exhibited by the community leaders influenced the participations of community members in development activities was examined in this study using Irasa community in Ado-Ekiti as a case study. An instrument tagged ‘Questionnaire for Community Members’ was used for this study. The instrument was administered on thirty randomly selected respondents in the community. Information obtained revealed that respondents believed that community development involved setting up of goals which are done jointly through the involvement of all stake holders. Participation in Community Development Projects was not regarded as mandatory hence offenders were not liable to punishment. Also, the in-flow and out-flow of information were not restricted by the leaders and their directives were not strictly complied with. The leaders respected and protected the self esteems of the subjects. The leaders recognized the subjects’ worth and esteems, based their actions on trust, integrity, honesty, equality, openness and mutual respects. All these were features of democratic or participative leadership style. In conclusion, this study revealed that democratic leadership practised in the study area lends credence to the assertion that when good leadership is provided the people participate voluntarily in the accomplishment of stated objectives.

I argue that evidentialist ethics of belief requires believing in every promise, because any promise always has sufficient evidence. In order to combine evidentialism with ethics of belief, I distinguish two belief-like propositional attitudes. The first is categorical belief, which I call “opinion”, the second is quantitative belief, which I call “credence”. I accept doxastic voluntarism about opinions, and doxastic involuntarism about credences. Opinion has two values — affirmative and negative — and the subject has control over which one to choose. Credence can have any value between 0 and`1; it is formed solely on the basis of the available evidence, and the subject has no control over it. The requirement of evidentialist ethics of belief is that one should have opinion that p when his credence that $p$ is between 0.5 and 1, and opinion that $\neg p$ when the credence is below 0.5. My main argument has two premises. The first premise is that if one accepts a promise, then his credence that “the promise will be fulfilled” is higher than 0.5. The second premise claims that nothing can decrease that credence. The main explanation for the second premise is that any potential evidence against the fulfillment of the promise turns out to be evidence against its validity, not the evidence against the propositional content of the credence. The final conclusion is that if an evidentialist accepts a promise, then he should always have the opinion that “the promise will be fulfilled”, i. e., always believe in the promise.

Background:Social support may be beneficial for medical students who must develop adaptive strategies to respond to the demands and challenges during third-year clerkship.We provide a detailed description of the supportive behaviours experienced by third-year students during a longitudinal integrated clerkship (LIC) in the context of rural family medicine. Methods:Informed by a social constructivist research paradigm, we undertook a qualitative study to understand from the students’ perspectives the presence and characteristics of social support available during a LIC.Data were collected from conversational interviews at three points during the eight-month clerkship year, pre-, during, and post-clerkship, to explore how 12 medical students experienced social support. We employed an innovative methodological approach, the guided walk method, to gain the students’ stories in the contexts where they were taking place. Results: The participants described the relationships they developed with various sources of social support such as (a) preceptors, (b) peers, (c) family, (d) health professionals, and (e) community members. Conclusion:Various individuals representing communities of practice such as the medical profession and community members were intimately related to the longitudinal aspects of the students’ experiences. The findings lend credence to the view that it really does take a community to train a future physician.

Despite the use of virtual support groups among adoptive parents, very few studies have empirically examined outcomes of participating in these groups. This research brief investigated the impact of perceived social support, information seeking effectiveness, and homophily on perceived empathy within a pilot-phase virtual support group for adoptive parents (N = 27) in one southeastern state. Researchers also examined the moderating effect of homophily on these relationships. Findings suggest that while perceived social support was significantly positively related to perceived empathy, there was no association between perceived information seeking effectiveness and perceived empathy. Of variables of interest for this study, only homophily uniquely predicted empathy and was not a moderator in other models. While findings lend credence to the notion that perceived similarities among participants is important, there are implications for developing diverse, inclusive adoptive parent support groups. This brief discusses results from this study and apposite areas for future research.

This article has three aims: to continue the process of giving credence to reflective teaching, which is integral to effective teaching and learning; to make explicit the connections between reflective teaching and inclusive teaching; and to identify key tasks for teachers in the inclusive classroom. Relevant articles were selected for inclusion in this review by searching online databases for key words and phrases. Findings reveal that the following features of reflective teaching connect with and are fundamental to inclusive teaching: giving careful consideration or thought; questioning personal assumptions, values, and beliefs; taking initiatives; using intuition; taking part in development and change; and the use of journalling. Teachers' tasks in the inclusive classroom include giving careful consideration to what is to be taught and how it is to be taught (rather than who is to learn); considering the learning needs of all students (not just those with additional needs); questioning beliefs and rejecting deterministic and associated ideas; reflecting on the classroom situation; constantly seeking out and trying new things to support all learners; discussing new initiatives with colleagues in order to receive feedback; examining, framing and attempting to solve dilemmas of the classroom; using journals to track students' learning; and taking responsibility for their own professional growth and understanding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

I present a puzzle about belief and credence, which takes the form of three independently supported views that are mutually inconsistent. The first is the view thatShas a modal belief thatp(e.g.,Sbelieves that probably-p) if and only ifShas a corresponding credence thatp. The second is the view thatSbelieves thatponly ifShas some credence thatp. The third is the view that, possibly,Sbelieves thatpwithout a modal belief thatp. [Word Count: 85]

Halal tourism, an under-researched area, has gained significant popularity in recent years. The present study develops a research model of Halal restaurants’ non-verbal messages to tourists that lead to their offensiveness and their interaction adaptation, which determine their behaviors. In particular, this paper examines (1) how non-verbal messages—defined as those that are not delivered face-to-face—trigger consumers’ interaction adaptation; (2) how experience and credence attributes moderate the relationship between interaction adaptation and consumers’ offensiveness; and (3) the relational outcomes. This model is applied to Chinese settings, where data were collected from 622 Muslims tourists who visited Halal restaurants in three of China's cities (Beijing, Shanghai, and Xian). The findings reveal a positive effect of visual and audio messages on Muslim tourists’ interaction adaptation and the likelihood of their offensiveness. The paper also foound that tourists’ responded to their offensiveness in the form of negative electronic word-of-mouth (e-WOM) and lowered continuance purchase intentions. The experience and credence attributes positively moderate the relationship between interaction adaptation and consumer offensiveness.

Logical connectives in natural language pose challenges to truth-conditional semantics due to pragmatics and gradience in their meaning. This paper reports on a case study of the conditional connectives (CCs)wenn/falls‘if/when, if/in case’ in German. Using distributional evidence, I argue thatwennandfallsdiffer in lexical pragmatics: They express different degrees of speaker commitment (i.e., credence) toward the modified antecedent proposition at the non-at-issue dimension. This contrast can be modeled using the speaker commitment scale (Giannakidou and Mari, 2016), i.e.,More committedLess committed. Four experiments are reported which tested thewenn/fallscontrast, as well as the summary of an additional one fromLiu (2019). Experiment 1 tested the naturalness of sentences containing the CCs (wennorfalls) and conditional antecedents with varying degrees of likelihood (very likely/likely/unlikely). The starting prediction was thatfallsmight be degraded in combination with very likely and likely events in comparison to the other conditions, which was not borne out. Experiment 2 used the forced lexical choice paradigm, testing the choice betweenwennandfallsin the doxastic agent’s conditional thought, depending on their belief or disbelief in the antecedent. The finding was that subjects chosefallssignificantly more often thanwennin the disbelief-context, and vice versa in the belief-context. Experiment 3 tested the naturalness of sentences with CCs and an additional relative clause conveying the speaker’s belief or disbelief in the antecedent. An interaction was found: While in the belief-context,wennwas rated more natural thanfalls, the reverse pattern was found in the disbelief-context. While the results are mixed, the combination of the findings in Experiment 2, Experiment 3 and that of Experiment 4a fromLiu (2019)thatfallsled to lower speaker commitment ratings thanwenn, provide evidence for the CC scale. Experiment 4b tested the interaction between two speaker commitment scales, namely, one of connectives (includingweil‘because’ andwenn/falls) and the other of adverbs (factive vs. non-factive,Liu, 2012). While factive and non-factive adverbs were rated equally natural for the factive causal connective, non-factive adverbs were preferred over factive ones by both CCs, with no difference betweenwennandfalls. This is discussed together with the result inLiu (2019), where thewenn/fallsdifference occurred in the absence of negative polarity items (NPIs), but disappeared in the presence of NPIs. This raises further questions on how different speaker commitment scales interact and why.