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Jumping ability has been identified as one of the best predictors of dance performance. The latest findings in strength and conditioning research suggest that the relationship between force and velocity mechanical capabilities, known as the force-velocity profile, is a relevant parameter for the assessment of jumping ability. In addition, previous investigations have suggested the existence of an optimal force-velocity profile for each individual that maximizes jump performance. Given the abundance of ballistic actions in ballet (e.g., jumps and changes of direction), quantification of the mechanical variables of the force-velocity profile could be beneficial for dancers as a guide to specific training regimens that can result in improvement of either maximal force or velocity capabilities. The aim of this study was to compare the mechanical variables of the force-velocity profile during jumping in different company ranks of ballet dancers. Eighty-seven female professional ballet dancers (age: 18.94 ± 1.32 years; height: 164.41 ± 8.20 cm; weight: 56.3 ± 5.86 kg) showed high force deficits (> 40%) or low force deficits (10% to 40%) regardless of their company rank. Our results suggest that dance training mainly develops velocity capabilities, and due to the high number of dramatic elevations that dance performance requires, supplemental individualized force training may be beneficial for dancers. The individualization of training programs addressed to the direction of each individual's imbalance (high force or low force) could help dancers and their teachers to improve jump height and therefore dance performance.

The prevention strategies used by tennis coaches when delivering tennis lessons during the COVID-19 pandemic were analyzed in this study. An ad hoc questionnaire collected data from 655 Spanish and Portuguese speaking tennis coaches working in Latin America and Europe. Differences in the prevention measures were analyzed according to the continent, the coaches’ experience, and the type of facility they worked in. Results showed that coaches used information provided from local and national organizations more than from international ones. Hand hygiene, communication of preventive strategies, and changes in the coaching methodology were the most used prevention measures. Latin American coaches and those working in public facilities implemented the measures more often than their European colleagues or those working in private venues. Finally, more experienced coaches showed a greater awareness of the adoption of the measures than their less experienced counterparts. The data provided by this research may assist in developing new specific guidelines, protocols, and interventions to help better understand the daily delivery of tennis coaching in this challenging context.

The present study aimed to evaluate the effects of a match lost and a match won on post-competitive heart rate variability (HRV) in semi-professional female soccer athletes. A total of 13 players, with a mean age of 23.75 (5.32), from the Cáceres Women Football Club of the Spanish Second National Division participated in our study. They were evaluated in two microcycles which correspond to a match lost and a match won. For each microcycle, baseline and post-competitive measures were collected. Results indicate that HRV was significantly reduced before a match lost and won. Significant differences in HRV variables were observed when compared the lost match, and the match won. Results highlight the importance and usefulness of analyzing the HRV as an indicator of post-competitive fatigue in semiprofessional soccer players. Therefore, a competition’s results could be considered a relevant variable to consider when programming training load.

Background Fibromyalgia symptoms cause a significant reduction in the ability to perform daily life activities. These activities require the ability to perform more than one task simultaneously. The main objective of this study was to evaluate how dual-task could modify range of movement, duration of repetitions and performance in the arm curl test in healthy controls and patients with fibromyalgia. Methods Twenty women participated in this study, divided into two groups: 1) patients with fibromyalgia (N = 10, age = 52.00 [5.08]) and 2) age- and gender-matched healthy controls (N = 10; age = 51.60 [4.09]). The participants had to perform the arm curl test in two conditions: single test condition and performing a dual-task. The dual-task condition consisted of remembering three random unrelated words. Results Patients with fibromyalgia completed fewer repetitions than controls during dual-task condition (p-value = 0.015). Furthermore, both groups showed a significant decrease in the range of movement in the dual-task condition when comparing the mean of the three first repetitions with the three last ones (p-value Interpretation The motor task might be prioritized over the cognitive task at the beginning of the test. However, at the end of the test, the cognitive task could require more attention due to the increased time since the words were heard, and also the motor task could require less attention after some repetitions have been performed. Thus, the addition of a cognitive task could lead to a less conscious execution of the motor task at the end of the test, which may be consistent with a reduced range of movement.

Aging is a global phenomenon affecting numerous developed and developing countries. During this process, the functional state of the body, especially the cognitive state, declines. This research investigated the impact of virtual reality exercises on the cognitive status and dual-task performance in the elderly of Tabriz city, Iran. Forty men with a mean age of 71.5 were selected and assigned to either the experimental (n = 20) or control groups (n = 20). Both groups completed the Mini-Mental State Examination for cognitive status. The pre-test was performed through the Timed Up and Go test (TUG) along with a countdown of numbers. Then, the experimental group practiced virtual driving for six weeks, while the control group received no treatment. After the treatment, both groups completed the post-test. At each stage, the test was performed as a dual motor task as well. Data were analyzed using the paired t-test and the independent sample t-test to show the intra-group and inter-group differences, respectively. The results showed a significant improvement in the cognitive status and dual-task performance of the elderly men after the six-week training period, which was also significant compared to the control group. Virtual reality driving can be used to improve the cognitive status and dual task performance of elderly men.

Objective Analyze the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic and its subsequent confinement on Olympic and Paralympic level athletes’ behaviors, perception of threat, stress, state of mind and training patterns.Methods All variables were modulated by gender, academic training, and sport discipline on a population composed of 447 Olympic (25.97 ± 7.46 years) and 64 Paralympic athletes (28.44 ± 10.50 years).Results Most of the athletes recognize that their best athletic performance diminished due to the COVID-19 confinement but that will recover after the pandemic and its confinements. Almost half of the athletes declared they were more tired than normal and had difficulty sleeping, while more than half eat more or less as usual. Paralympic athletes report they felt more capable to cope with personal problems and feeling more frequently that life events where going well and less lonely during the confinement than the Olympians. The athletes from team sports disrupted their training routine more significantly than athletes of individual sports, seeing their athletic performance more affected. Athletes in individual sports felt more capable to cope with personal problems than athletes in team sports. Female athletes were significantly more tired and reported more difficulty sleeping than male.Conclusions The situation caused by COVID-19 has had significant effects on the behavior, perception of threat, stress and training patterns of Olympic and Paralympic athletes facing the 2020 Tokyo Olympiad. It is necessary that sports institutions to reinforce mechanisms of help to athletes during future situations of confinement.

Objective: This study aimed to compare the effects of two intervention programs, (1) high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and (2) moderate-intensity training (MIT), on anxiety, depression, stress, and resilience during the confinement caused by the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in healthy adults.Methods: A total of 67 adults who participated were randomly assigned to two groups: HIIT and MIT groups. The MIT group had to perform a home-based intervention based on aerobic exercises, whereas the HIIT group had to perform a home-based intervention based on HIIT exercises. The two groups (HIIT and MIT) had to complete the same physical exercise volume, 40 min per session (6 days per week) during the confinement period (6 weeks). Depression, anxiety, stress, and resilience were assessed before and after the intervention.Results: Results showed that HIIT and MIT significantly reduced the stress, anxiety, and depression as well as increase the resilience (p < 0.05). Moreover, the improvements obtained in the HIIT group seem to be greater than those of the MIT group in depression (p < 0.05).Conclusions: HIIT and MIT decreased anxiety, stress, and depression as well as increased resilience during the COVID-19 confinement. In addition, the HIIT intervention seemed to be more beneficial to reduce depression than the MIT intervention.

The aim of the study was to analyse the relationships established between the different factors that make up coaches’ controlling interpersonal style and frustration of basic psychological needs, as well as to identify the differences that may exist in terms of gender and training hours, and whether the latter may trigger these variables in adolescent judokas. A socio-demographic questionnaire, the Controlling Coach Behaviors Scale (CCBS) (Bartholomew, Ntoumanis & Thøgersen-Ntoumani, 2010), in its Spanish version (Castillo et al., 2014), was administered, as well as the Psychological Need Thwarting Scale (PNTS) (Bartholomew, Ntoumanis, Ryan & Thøgersen-Ntoumani, 2011), also in its Spanish version (Sicilia, Ferriz & Sáenz-Álvarez, 2013). The sample comprised 86 adolescent judokas, who had a federation licence and participated in regional competitions (M = 14.13; SD = 1.38). Descriptive and correlation analyses of all variables were performed. The Mann-Whitney U-test and the Kruskal-Wallis test were carried out, respectively, to analyse the differences in gender and training hours. The results showed a positive and significant correlation between all study variables. In addition, significant differences were found between genders in the control variable of use of rewards, and in the frustration variable of the basic psychological need of competence, depending on the judokas’ training hours. These results suggest that controlling interpersonal styles influence the frustration of basic psychological needs of adolescent judokas, according to their gender or training hours. Keywords: Interpersonal control; Psychological need thwarting; Judo

The aim of this study has been to analyse the perception of the Olympic values shown by coaches of different levels and categories in Portugal related to the type of sport they train (individual or collective). The study sample consisted of 1473 Portuguese coaches (214 female and 1259 male) from 34 different sports modalities (individual and collective). The data collection instrument was a three-dimensional questionnaire (perception of the Olympic Symbols, opinion about participation in the Olympic Games and values related to the Olympic Games). Descriptive analysis showed differences between the opinions of individual and team sports coaches in the three dimensions. The inferential analysis only showed significant differences in the dimension of opinion about participation in the Olympic games. These results reveal the difference in the perception of the Olympic values between coaches of individual sports and those of team sports.

El objetivo del estudio fue identificar las posibles diferencias a nivel de motivación, autoconfianza y ansiedad que puedan existir en función del sexo y el nivel competitivo de dos grupos de judokas (Grupo de alto rendimiento y Grupo de especialización). Se llevó a cabo un estudio descriptivo de corte transversal. Se administraron el Competitive State Anxiety Inventory (CSAI-2R) y el Behavioral Regulation in Sport Questionnaire (BRSQ) 10 minutos antes de entrar los judocas al tatami, el día de la competición. Los resultados revelaron diferencias a nivel de ansiedad somática (intensidad), observándose esta más elevada en las mujeres que en los hombres. Se encontraron también diferencias significativas en la variable autoconfianza (intensidad), mostrando los judokas del equipo nacional valores más elevados que los de especialización. No se encontraron diferencias en las variables motivación y autoconfianza en función del sexo, ni en las variables motivación y ansiedad en la comparativa entre ambos grupos, The objective of the study was to identify the possible differences in level of motivation, self-confidence and anxiety according to sex and the competitive level of two groups of judokas (High Performance Group and Specialization Group). The Competitive State Anxiety Inventory (CSAI-2R) and the Behavioral Regulation in Sport Questionnaire (BRSQ) were administered 10 minutes before the judokas entered the tatami on the day of the competition. The results revealed differences at the level of somatic anxiety (intensity), being observed higher in women than in men. Significant differences were also found in the variable self-confidence (intensity), showing the judokas of the national team higher values than those of specialization. No differences were found in the motivation and self-confidence variables according to sex, nor in the motivation and anxiety variables in the comparison between both groups

Fibromyalgia (FM) is a chronic disease whose symptoms may cause altered walking pattern, which is important given the relevance of walking in daily life activities. These activities use to require the ability to perform both a motor and a cognitive task simultaneously. The main aim of the current study was to evaluate the impact of performing a simultaneous cognitive task in the gait pattern of women with FM.A total of 36 women recruited from a local association took part in this cross-sectional study. The time required to complete the 10-meters-walking-test and kinematic outcomes including number of steps, cadence, trunk tilt and ranges of motion were analyzed under single (motor task only) and dual task (motor and cognitive tasks simultaneously) conditions. The secondary task consisted in counting aloud backward in rows of two.Results showed a significant increment in the time required to complete the test (p 0.01) when participants performed the motor and cognitive tasks at the same time. Moreover, relevant changes in kinematic parameters such as increment of number of steps (p 0.01), cadence (p 0.01), trunk tilt (p 0.01) and both hip (p 0.01) and knee (p = 0.03) ranges of motion were also observed.Adding a cognitive task to a primary motor task affects the walking motor pattern in women with FM, making it more stable and safer walking pattern when the attention is focused on two simultaneous tasks.

This study aimed to compare the dynamics of the prefrontal cortex (PFC), between adult and adolescent chess players, during chess-based problem-solving tasks of increasing level of difficulty, relying on the identification of changes in oxygenated hemoglobin (HbO2) and hemoglobin (HHb) through the functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) method. Thirty male federated chess players (mean age: 24.15 &plusmn, 12.84 years), divided into adults and adolescents, participated in this cross-sectional study. Participants were asked to solve three chess problems with different difficulties (low, medium, and high) while changes in HbO2 and HHb were measured over the PFC in real-time with an fNIRS system. Results indicated that the left prefrontal cortex (L-PFC) increased its activation with the difficulty of the task in both adolescents and adults. Interestingly, differences in the PFC dynamics but not in the overall performance were found between adults and adolescents. Our findings contributed to a better understanding of the PFC resources mobilized during complex tasks in both adults and adolescents.

The aim of this study was to analyse the differences in behavioural, psychological, and physiological stress markers and academic performance of immigrant parents’ students and non-immigrant parents’ students. 75 students (7.8±2.3 years, from 3 to 12 years), 37 from Morocco immigrant families and 38 from Spanish families, all of them studying in a Spanish public school were recruited. We analysed the autonomical nervous system stress status by the heart rate variability, physical activity patterns, nutritional habits, state and trait anxiety, and academic performance of students. No significant differences were found in autonomical nervous system stress markers, physical activity levels, academic performance, and just a lower protein animal consumption from students with Moroccan families. Students with North African descendent family presented a behavioural, psychological and physiological stress markers and academic performance similar than students with national origins, showing their adaptation in the school context. Sin financiación 3.244 JCR (2020) Q2, 20/53 Behavioral Sciences 0.960 SJR (2020) Q1, 26/658 Philosophy No data IDR 2019 UEM

The aim of the present study was to analyze differences in the autonomic stress status between rural and urban school teachers. We analyzed the autonomic modulation in 25 pre-school and primary school teachers (40±7.8 years) from a city school (n:11) and rural school (n:14) by the heart rate variability analysis. Rural school teachers presented significative higher values in RMSSD, pNN50 and SD1 heart rate variability variables than city teachers, related with better autonomic control. Working place location is a variable that affects the psychophysiological stress response in education professionals, since city school teachers presented a higher sympathetic modulation, showing a lower heart rate variability, than rural school teachers. Sin financiación 3.244 JCR (2020) Q2, 20/53 Behavioral Sciences 0.960 SJR (2020) Q1, 26/658 Philosophy No data IDR 2019 UEM

The aim of the present study was to investigate how the heart and the brain react to playing chess with a computer versus in a real context in chess players. We also aim to investigate if familiarization with simulated practice leads to changes in heart rate variability (HRV) and the electroencephalographic (EEG) power spectrum. We designed a cross-sectional study, enrolling 27 chess players. They were randomly assigned to 3 minutes plus 2-second chess games: one with a computer (simulated scenario), and another in a real context. Additionally, participants were divided into two groups according to their level of familiarization of playing chess in a computer context. While they were playing, HRV and EEG were continuously recorded. Differences in HRV and EEG theta power spectrum between playing chess in a real or a simulated scenario were not found in chess players (p-value &gt, 0.05). When participants were divided into groups (familiarized and unfamiliarized with simulated chess practice), significant differences were observed in HRV and EEG (p-value &lt, 0.05). The EEG theta power spectrum was significantly lower, and HRV was higher in unfamiliarized players during the simulated scenario, which could indicate that they were less focused in a simulated environment than in a real context. Therefore, familiarization with simulated environments should be taken into account during the training process to achieve the best performance.

This chapter aims to analyse the importance of the referee’s psychological response to the VAR implementation. Nowadays, the demands of football require referees to make very quick and accurate decisions (De la Vega, Carrasquilla, Ortiz, Ruiz, & Armenteros, 2017a). These decisions can be affected by basic psychological processes such as attention and memory (MacMahon, Helsen, Starkes, & Weston, 2007). In turn, a review is presented and shows the influence that the VAR can have on the referee’s anxiety, self-confidence, leadership, and motivation (Johansen & Haugen, 2013). The chapter ends by emphasizing the importance of mental training with football referees in order to improve their performance.

The present study aimed to analyze differences in the electroencephalogram (EEG) power spectrum (theta, alpha, and beta) between participants who won (winning group) and those who lost (losing group) in three different chess games: against their same Elo (100% chess games), 25% over their Elo (125% chess games), and 25% under their Elo (75% chess games). EEG was assessed at baseline and during the chess games. Method: 14 male chess players (age: 35.36 &plusmn, 13.77 and Elo: 1921 &plusmn, 170) played three games of 3 min, plus two additional seconds per move, while EEG was assessed. There were three difficulty levels (75%, 100%, and 125%), with two games (one with white pieces and another with black pieces) per level. The winning group showed higher theta power in the frontal, central, and posterior brain regions when difficulty increased (p-value &lt, 0.05). Besides this, alpha power showed higher values (p-value &lt, 0.05) in 125% games than in 75% chess games in C3, T3, T4, T5, and T6. The losing group showed a significant decrease (p-value &lt, 0.05) in the beta and alpha power spectrum in frontal, central, parietotemporal, and occipital areas, when the opponent&rsquo, s difficulty increased. Moreover, between groups, analyses showed higher theta power in the losing group than in the winning group, in C3, T5, T6, P4, and Pz (p-value &lt, 0.05). Therefore, the winning group was able to adapt to each difficulty level, increasing theta power in the frontal, central, and posterior brain areas, as the efficiency hypothesis postulated. These changes were not observed in the losing group. Moreover, increases in alpha power during the most difficult games, in comparison with the easier, could have been caused by creative ideation and divergent thinking, as participants looked for alternative solutions against a higher-skilled opponent.

The game of chess has been traditionally used to study basic cognitive processes. However, it has been poorly studied in adolescent chess players. The aim of the present study was to describe the psychophysiological response of adolescence, using electroencephalography (EEG) and heart rate variability (HRV) during problem-solving tasks. Thus, participants had to solve four chess problems with different level of difficulty (low and high). A total of 13 adolescent chess players (age: 15.45 [1.64] with a mean ELO score of 1403 [209.16]) participated in the study. EEG and HRV were recorded while participants solved the chess problems. Results indicated that HRV is reduced as well as EEG theta power spectrum increased during the high difficulty level. These results support the idea of HRV and EEG as useful tools to control stress or cognitive load during cognitive tasks even in adolescent. This characterization increases the knowledge about the psychophysiological response of adolescence to a cognitive task under time pressure.

Sin financiación 2.826 JCR (2019) Q2, 16/52 Behavioral Sciences, 4/13 Psychology, Biological 0.993 SJR (2019) Q1, 29/651 Philosophy; Q2, 26/79 Behavioral Neuroscience, 54/154 Experimental and Cognitive Psychology No data IDR 2019 UEM

The present study aimed to evaluate the effects of a highly-demanding match and a lowly-demanding match on pre-competitive heart rate variability (HRV) and anxiety in semi-professional female soccer athletes. A total of 14 players, with a mean age of 23.78 (4.93), from the Cáceres Women Football Club of the Spanish Second National Division participated in our study. They were evaluated in two microcycles which correspond to a highly- and a lowly-demanding matches. For each microcycle a baseline and a pre-competitive measures were collected. Results indicated that HRV was significantly reduced before a highly demanding match whereas a lowly-demanding match did not lead to any change. Significant differences in HRV and cognitive anxiety were observed when compared the highly and the lowly demanding matches, which means an increase in the anxiety levels before the highly-demanding match. HRV could be an indicator of precompetitive anxiety in semi-professional female soccer players. This could be used by coaches or physical trainers as a tool to examine the precompetitive anxiety in athletes.

We aimed to analyse the effectiveness of an operative training in soldiers' psychophysiological and melee combat performance. Nineteen soldiers performed a 50‐hr training for 10 weeks. After training, they were divided into two groups: higher performance group (HPG) and lower performance group (LPG), then they conducted a realistic melee simulation where psychophysiological response, task performance, and the utilization of techniques learned were measured. HPG presented a significantly (p < 0.05) higher heart rate, blood lactate, and jump height; a lower blood oxygen saturation, task performance mark, use of studied techniques than LPG after the simulation; and a higher low frequency/high frequency ratio of heart rate variability previous the simulation than LPG. Independent of performance and the use of studied techniques by the participants, the melee simulation produced an increase in fight or flight response, increasing rated of stress and perceived exertion, sympathetic modulation, and physiological response. A specific melee combat training program induced different modifications in psychophysiological and task performance depending on the level of studied technique used. HPG presented a significantly higher cardiovascular response than LPG and time perception, and memory presented no differences between groups; also HPG presented a significantly higher use of studied techniques. Sin financiación 1.875 JCR (2018) Q2, 40/82 Psichology, Applied; Q3, 75/142 Psychiatry, 47/77 Psichology, 95/146 Psychiatry 0.813 SJR (2018) Q2, 86/233 Applied Psychology, 72/293 Clinical Psychology, 777/2844 Medicine (miscellaneous), 169/555 Psychiatry and Mental Health No data IDR 2018 UEM

Psychophysiological requirements of chess players are poorly understood, and periodization of training is often made without any empirical basis. For this reason, the aim of the present study was to investigate the psychophysiological response and quantify the player internal load during, and after playing a chess game. The participant was an elite 33 year-old male chess player ranked among the 300 best chess players in the world. Thus, cortical arousal by critical flicker fusion threshold, electroencephalogram by the theta Fz/alpha Pz ratio and autonomic modulation by heart rate variability were analyzed. Data revealed that cortical arousal by critical flicker fusion threshold and theta Fz/alpha Pz ratio increased and heart rate variability decreased during chess game. All these changes indicated that internal load increased during the chess game. In addition, pre-activation was detected in pre-game measure, suggesting that the prefrontal cortex might be preparatory activated. For these reasons, electroencephalogram, critical flicker fusion threshold and heart rate variability analysis may be highly applicable tools to control and monitor workload in chess player. Sin financiación 2.415 JCR (2018) Q2, 41/98 Health Care Sciences & Services, 12/26 Medical Informatics 0.565 SJR (2018) Q2, 28/163 Health Informatics, 11/57 Health Information Management, 104/941 Information Systems, 1184/2844 Medicine (miscellaneous) No data IDR 2018 UEM

This article presents a review of previous research on wheelchair tennis. We have analysed previously published sport science articles that concentrate on wheelchair tennis. Findings indicate that a greater scientific production of wheelchair tennis related research is still necessary with specific areas proposed for those involved in research.

[Resumen] El judo de alto rendimiento se encuentra en continua evolución, explorándose nuevas formas de enseñanza y entrenamiento, que faciliten conducir al judoca hacia el éxito.El objetivo del presente trabajo fue analizar las relaciones que se establecen entre los diferentes tipos de motivación autodeterminada, necesidades psicológicas básicas, ansiedad cognitiva, ansiedad somática y autoconfianza en judocas competidores.Se analizó una muestra de 124 judocas competidores, 36 mujeres y 88 hombres pertenecientes a 16 clubes de toda España, cuyas categorías iban desde infantil hasta senior, con edades comprendidas entre los 12 y los 37 años.Para llevar a cabo dicho estudio, se pasaron los cuestionarios de Behavioral Regulation in Sport Questionnaire, para medir el nivel de motivación autodeterminada; el Psychological Need Satisfaction in Exercise Scale, para medir la satisfacción de las necesidades psicológicas básicas y el Revised Competitive State Anxiety Inventory, para medir el estado de ansiedad.Los resultados mostraron que la motivación intrínseca, correlacionó de forma positiva y significativa con la necesidad psicológica básica de competencia además de la autoconfianza en su dimensión intensidad. Por otro lado, la desmotivación, la regulación externa y la ansiedad somática en su dimensión intensidad, correlacionaron negativa y significativamente con la motivación intrínseca.Por consiguiente, los entrenadores tendrían que satisfacer las necesidades psicológicas básicas de los judocas, con el fin de provocar un aumento de las formas de motivación más autodeterminadas, pudiendo originar ello una mejora de la autoconfianza y una reducción de los niveles del estado de ansiedad. [Abstract] High-performance judo is going through continuous evolution, exploring new forms of teaching and training, to facilitate conducting the judoka toward success.The objective of this study was to analyze the relationships been established between different types of self-determined motivation, basic psychological needs, cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and self-confidence in competing judokas. A sample of 124 competing judokas, 36 women and 88 men belonging to 16 clubs from all over Spain, ranging from children to seniors, ages ranging from 12 to 37, were analyzed.To carry out this study, the questionnaires for Behavioral Regulation in Sport Questionnaire were used, to measure the level of self-determined motivation; The Psychological Need Satisfaction in Exercise Scale was used, to measure the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and the Revised Competitive State Anxiety Inventory, to measure the anxiety state.The results showed that intrinsic motivation correlated in a positive and significant way with the basic psychological need for competence as well as the intensity amount for self-confidence. On the other hand, demotivation, external regulation and the intensity amount for somatic anxiety correlated negatively and significantly with intrinsic motivation.Therefore, trainers would have to satisfy the basic psychological needs of the judokas, in order to trigger an increase in more self-determined forms of motivation, which could lead to an improvement of self-confidence and a reduction of anxiety state levels

This investigation examined the effects of distributed and massed practice on the learning and retention of a discrete computerized skill (Exp. 1) and a continuous computerized skill (Exp. 2). 40 men were randomly assigned to one of four groups, of which two groups took part in Exp. 1 and two groups in Exp. 2. Performance was assessed at various points during acquisition and then on 8 retention tests conducted at varying times after acquisition. Learning curves for practice were highly similar for the two conditions. Participants in the distributed-practice group performed significantly better than those in the massed-practice group at the end of practice on both the discrete and continuous skills. However, participants in the distributed-practice group performed significantly more poorly on retention during 24 hr. and after acquisition. Participants in the massed-practice condition performed significantly better on retention tests than did those who learned in the distributed-practice condition.

This study investigated simultaneous treatments in contextual interference (blocked and random practice) and their effect on the process of learning four tennis shots. 8 tennis players participated in the research, which was carried out in two phases. The first phase involved a 3-wk. period of 12 sessions with 192 practice tennis shots per session for each tennis player. The second phase comprised 4 retention tests carried out at 48 hr. and 2, 4, and 6 weeks following the learning phase. This phase consisted of evaluating the retention of the skills that had been practiced during the learning phase. The results indicated an improvement in the quality of shots for both practice conditions during the learning phase. Differences in retention appeared relative to differences in the type of practice conditions (random or blocked) in which the skill was learned and also depended on the type of shot and the time that had elapsed since the learning period.