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Incidents of intimate partner violence (IPV) are considered more serious when perpetrated by a male than when perpetrated by a female, and IPV among gay men and lesbians are perceived as less serious than IPV among heterosexual couples. This study examines how assailant and victim sexual orientation and protection orders (POs) influence individuals’ evaluations of abuse in a case of simple assault. Respondents (N = 640 college students) were provided with scenarios of IPV among opposite- and same-sex couples with or without a PO. IPV was more likely to be perceived as abuse when a PO was in effect but less likely to be considered abuse when the couple was gay/lesbian. The IPV incident was most likely to be considered abuse when perpetrated by a heterosexual male and least likely to be considered abuse when perpetrated by a gay male. Female respondents were more likely to consider IPV more abusive when perpetrated by heterosexuals with POs than gay/lesbians with or without a PO. Although male respondents rated IPV between opposite- and same-sex couples with a PO similarly, they were less likely to identify IPV abuse in same-sex conditions when no PO was issued. Current findings emphasize some of the disparities in perceptions of what constitutes abuse among same- and opposite-sex couples.

Rape is a pervasive social problem that causes serious physical and psychological repercussions. Rape victims' recovery is often complicated by the public's failure to believe the victim and restore justice. This study applied system justification theory to examine whether the justification of gender inequality is related to moral outrage (an emotional precursor to corrective action) and rape myth acceptance; we also examined whether rape myth acceptance is associated with moral outrage at injustice. Results showed that gender-specific system justification correlated with less moral outrage at human suffering as well as greater rape myth acceptance. The relationships between these variables were similar for men and for women, a finding that suggests that rape myths are system justifying for women. When we controlled for gender-specific system justification, rape myth acceptance correlated with less moral outrage. Results are discussed in the context of how legitimizing ideologies reduce moral outrage at injustice and perpetuate a system of sexual violence.

Objective The aim of this study was to determine if object relations deficits in people with schizophrenia spectrum disorders (i.e., schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder) are related to co-morbid post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Design Cross-sectional and correlational. Method Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Checklist, and Bell Object Relations Inventory were administered to 60 people with schizophrenia in an outpatient setting. With four hierarchical regressions, we hypothesized that, controlling for schizophrenia symptoms, diagnosis type, and potential demographic features, PTSD symptoms would correlate with each of the four types of object relations deficits. Results All participants reported experiencing at least one traumatic experience. As predicted, PTSD symptoms were a significant predictor of alienation, insecure attachment, and egocentricity controlling for schizophrenia symptoms, diagnosis type, and demographic features. Against prediction, PTSD was not associated with Social Incompetence. Conclusion If PTSD symptoms contribute to object relations deficits in persons with schizophrenia spectrum disorders, then interventions such as psychotherapy need to be developed to address PTSD symptoms in the treatment of these interpersonal deficits. Practitioner points Clinical implications Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms, rather than schizophrenia itself, may explain increased problems with schizophrenia patients' alienation, egocentricity, and insecure attachment. Interventions such as psychotherapy need to be further developed to address PTSD symptoms as well as schizophrenia symptoms in this patient population. Limitations Participants were primarily male and middle-aged, and many years had passed since the onset of their illness. Replication is needed with diverse settings and participants, including women and persons in earlier phases of schizophrenia spectrum disorders. One self-report measure was used to estimate object relations deficits, a complex construct that may be difficult to measure accurately. This research is correlational and causation cannot be presumed.

This study applied system justification theory to understand the function of rape myth acceptance. Participants read a rape scenario that manipulated the difference in status between the perpetrator and victim, as well as the potential threat to perpetrator as depicted by whom the victim told about the rape. People’s opposition to equality and gender separately and together predicted rape myth acceptance. People with higher opposition to equality reported less rape myth acceptance when a higher-status perpetrator got away with rape than when he was reported to police. Conversely, people with lower opposition to equality reported more rape myth acceptance when the higher-status perpetrator got away with rape. People’s opposition to equality and gender interacted such that men with lower opposition to equality also reported more rape myth acceptance when the equal- and lower-status perpetrator got away with rape. Gender predicted rape myth acceptance such that when the lower-status perpetrator was reported to the police, women reported more rape myth acceptance whereas men reported less rape myth acceptance. This is the first study to show that rape myth acceptance is malleable and strategically motivated. These findings have implications for not only understanding rape myth acceptance, but also other ideologies that explain unethical behavior by advantaged groups.

Men are more likely to be blamed more for intimate partner violence (IPV) than are women who commit the same offense. However, because men are typically stronger and perceived as more physically aggressive than women are, perpetrator sex is confounded with masculinity and the ability to arouse fear in the victim. This study disentangled the construct of gender in understanding bystanders’ attributions of blame in IPV. Participants ( N = 639) read a scenario in which the perpetrator’s sex (male/female) and gender identity (masculine/feminine), and the victim’s sex (male/female) were manipulated and rated how much they blamed the perpetrator and the perpetrator’s ability to arouse fear of injury in the victim. Results showed that male perpetrators (regardless of gender identity) who assaulted a female victim were attributed the most blame and were perceived as having the greatest ability to arouse victim fear. In contrast, feminine female perpetrators were attributed the least blame and perceived as arousing the least victim fear regardless of the victim’s gender. Furthermore, controlling for the perpetrator’s ability to arouse fear in the victim resulted in the elimination of the interaction effects for blame. This finding suggests that perpetrators’ ability to arouse fear is an underlying factor in bystanders’ attributions of blame.

The process and implications of gender-based self-stereotyping are examined in this paper. Women displayed a tendency to selectively self-stereotype for personality and physical traits such that they endorsed positive stereotypic traits and denied negative traits as descriptive of the self and closest women friends. However, negative traits were endorsed as descriptive of women in general. Cognitive stereotypes were endorsed as more descriptive of all women than of the general university student. The tendency to selectively self-stereotype on physical traits was positively associated with appearance, social, and performance self-esteem. The results are discussed for their theoretical and practical implications.

The goal of this study was to determine how ambivalent sexism toward women and men are both associated with rape myth acceptance. The Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance scale, Ambivalent Sexism Inventory, and Ambivalence toward Men Inventory were completed by 409 participants. Hostile sexism toward women positively correlated with rape myth acceptance. For benevolent sexism toward women, complementary gender differentiation was positively associated with rape myth acceptance whereas protective paternalism was negatively associated. Benevolent sexism toward men, but not hostile sexism, positively correlated with rape myth acceptance. Further, for female participants higher maternalism toward men corresponded with higher rape myth acceptance. These findings suggest that sexist beliefs toward both women and men are important for understanding the support of rape myths.

Prior research has shown that within racial category, group members with more Afrocentric facial features are presumed to have more stereotypic traits than those with less Afrocentric features. The present experiment investigated whether this form of feature-based stereotyping occurs when more diagnostic information is available. The participants were provided with photographs and information about the aggressive (or non-aggressive) behaviour of 64 African Americans in four different situations, and asked to predict the likelihood of aggression in a fifth situation. As expected, each instance of aggression increased estimates that a target would behave aggressively in the unknown situation. With degree of displayed aggression controlled, however, targets with more Afrocentric features were judged as significantly more likely to behave aggressively than targets with less Afrocentric features. Thus, stereotyping based on Afrocentric features occurs even when other obviously-relevant information is available. This suggests that it may be difficult to detect and avoid. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Payne (2001) has documented that African-American faces automatically facilitate the categorization of handguns, relative to White faces. We suggest that these provocative results could derive from either the automatic activation of prejudice (negative evaluations) or the automatic activation of stereotypes (both positively and negatively valenced associations). In an extension of Payne’s procedure, we show that African-American faces facilitate the categorization of both handguns and sports-related objects, but not the categorization of insects or fruits. Additionally, both handguns and sports objects are more likely to be miscategorized following a White face prime than an African-American one. These results suggest that when perceivers are attempting to identify objects, automatic stereotypic associations, both positively and negatively valenced ones, are more influential than general negative sentiments towards African-Americans.

Power and sex are thought to be important factors associated with sexual aggression. The goal of this study was to offer a dual-process model to determine how both an implicit power–sex association and explicit power–sex beliefs contribute to rape myth acceptance and rape proclivity. In Study 1, an explicit measure of power–sex beliefs was developed using a participant sample of 131 college students (54% female; age: M = 20.2 years, SD = 3.5 years). In Study 2, 108 male college students (age: M = 19.1 years, SD = 1.3 years) completed a power–sex implicit association test and three explicit measures assessing power–sex beliefs, rape myth acceptance, and rape proclivity. Two models of rape proclivity were compared. The best-fitting model showed that rape myth acceptance mediated the relationships between rape proclivity and an implicit power–sex association, as well as explicit power–sex beliefs.

This study investigates the structure of Struckman-Johnson and Struckman-Johnson's Male Rape Myth Scale, examines gender differences in rape myth acceptance, and explores the underlying ideologies that facilitate male rape myth acceptance. A three-factor model, with rape myths regarding Trauma, Blame, and Denial as separate subscales, is the best fitting solution. However, the results indicate that additional scale development and validity tests are necessary. In exploratory analyses, men are more accepting of male rape myths than are women. Benevolent sexism toward men and acceptance of interpersonal violence are strong predictors of male rape myth acceptance for both men and women. Thus, the attitudes that facilitate rape myth acceptance against men appear to be similar to those that facilitate rape myth acceptance against women. Suggestions for future scale development are outlined and theoretical implications of the findings are discussed.

Prior research has shown that within a racial category, people with more Afrocentric facial features are presumed more likely to have traits that are stereotypic of Black Americans compared with people with less Afrocentric features. The present study investigated whether this form of feature-based stereotyping might be observed in criminal-sentencing decisions. Analysis of a random sample of inmate records showed that Black and White inmates, given equivalent criminal histories, received roughly equivalent sentences. However, within each race, inmates with more Afrocentric features received harsher sentences than those with less Afrocentric features. These results are consistent with laboratory findings, and they suggest that although racial stereotyping as a function of racial category has been successfully removed from sentencing decisions, racial stereotyping based on the facial features of the offender is a form of bias that is largely overlooked.