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The current interest in the role of culture in language teaching is due to a number of factors, political, educational, ideological. Both in Europe and in the U.S., albeit for different reasons, there is a great deal of political pressure now put on foreign language educators to help solve the social and economic problems of the times. Educators fear that the mere acquisition of linguistic systems is no guarantee of international peace and understanding. After years of communicative euphoria, some language teachers are becoming dissatisfied with purely functional uses of language. Some are pleading to supplement the traditional acquisition of "communication skills" with some intellectually legitimate, humanistically oriented, cultural "content". Others, who teach their language to non-native speaker immigrants, are under pressure to absorb (read: acculturate) into their society growing numbers of newcomers. And there is of course the recrudescence of nationalism around the world that draws political capital from increased links between national languages and national cultures. The reasons for the growing "culturalisation" of language teaching are many, the motives often contradictory.

For Malaysian students, speaking in English is one of the most challenging skills to master, especially if they do not have a strong command of the language. Meanwhile in China, the English language is primarily employed as a means of academic communication and teaching. This paper aims to identify which linguistic items have been transferred positively and negatively from L1 (Bahasa Melayu and Mandarin) in speaking English (L2) among primary school students. A qualitative study among primary school students from China and Malaysia was carried out using purposive sampling. Based on the findings, four types of syntactic errors from the Malaysian students' speech were identified. It was evident that the students had difficulties to speak correctly in terms of sentence structure. The four syntactic errors found are simple past, simple present, verb ‘to be’ and subject-verb-agreement. Meanwhile, it has been found that Chinese students frequently produce linguistic mistakes during their utterances of L2 speech as a result of L1 interference. This research also exposed that the students are still unconsciously relying on their mother tongue to translate their sentence into L2. The study is expected to help ESL teachers to draw the analogies between corresponding L1 and L2 syntax constructions. The findings will contribute and direct the learners’ attention to cross-language syntactic similarities and differences and thus guide them to a deeper understanding of underlying linguistic structure.

This research aims to identify the interference of Betawi language elements to the morphological variables of adolescent speech in Jakarta. The present study uses a qualitative method approach using descriptive analysis techniques. The subjects in the current study were adolescents who were in Jakarta. The data analyzed in this study are words in a sentence that interfered with the Betawi language, which contained aspects of affixation, reduplication, composition, and acronyms. The research findings indicate a Betawi language morphological interference to the morphological variables of speech from the aspects of affixation and reduplication. The results of other studies indicate that there is a Betawi language morphological interference to the morphological variables of speech from the affixation aspect, namely, words affixed with prefixes, suffixes, and confixes. The Betawi language morphological interference with the morphology of speech from the reduplication aspect, namely, dwilingga, can also be seen. The researcher did not find any Betawi language morphological interference to the morphology of speech from the aspects of composition and on the acronym teenagers speak in Jakarta.

This article is devoted to considering of the phenomenon of bilingualism from the point of view of linguistic, psycholinguistic, psychological, and pedagogical aspects, the characteristics of typical mistakes that bilingual students make in writing when studying the lexical and grammatical norms of the modern Russian literary language. The article discusses scientific approaches to describing the problem of bilingualism by Russian and foreign authors (Avrorin, 1972; Shcherba, 1974; Vereshchagin, 2014; Weinreich, 1972; Agar, 1994; Breton, 1991; Lambert, 1963). The methodological basis of the research is made up of general scientific methods: the method of complex theoretical analysis of the problem under study, logical methods of analysis of scientific concepts, methodological analysis of 16 written works of bilingual students 1st year in the discipline "Business communications and speech culture". The result of the research is a description of typical lexical and grammatical errors in the written language of bilingual students, and the presentation of practical recommendations for increasing the effectiveness of students' mastering of the norms of the Russian literary language. It is concluded that deep involvement in the language content plan, modern knowledge of the lexical and grammatical norms of the modern Russian literary language will help bilingual students competently express their thoughts in oral and written speech form and be active participants in effective intercultural communication. Keywords: Bilingualism; bilinguals; Russian language; psycholinguistics; communicative competence; language interference; lexical norms; grammatical norms.

International audience; Alcohol intoxication is known to affect many aspects of human behavior and cognition; one of such affected systems is articulation during speech production. Although much research has revealed that alcohol negatively impacts pronunciation in a first language (L1), there is only initial evidence suggesting a potential beneficial effect of inebriation on articulation in a non-native language (L2). The aim of this study was thus to compare the effect of alcohol consumption on pronunciation in an L1 and an L2. Participants who had ingested different amounts of alcohol provided speech samples in their L1 (Dutch) and L2 (English), and native speakers of each language subsequently rated the pronunciation of these samples on their intelligibility (for the L1) and accent nativelikeness (for the L2). These data were analyzed with generalized additive mixed modeling. Participants’ blood alcohol concentration indeed negatively affected pronunciation in L1, but it produced no significant effect on the L2 accent ratings. The expected negative impact of alcohol on L1 articulation can be explained by reduction in fine motor control. We present two hypotheses to account for the absence of any effects of intoxication on L2 pronunciation: (1) there may be a reduction in L1 interference on L2 speech due to decreased motor control or (2) alcohol may produce a differential effect on each of the two linguistic subsystems.

This study examines the cognitive information processes that Turkish advanced non-native speakers of English employ in assigning the referents of this and that in reading and production. We predicted that these speakers would assign referents in relation to the linear distance between discourse-linked anaphors and their referents in the discourse (i.e., based on spatial-temporal features of this and that), which means they would prefer this for a referent mentioned in the proximal chunk of text and that for a referent mentioned in the distal chunk. We also predicted that readers would not assign referents based on the focusing features of this and that. We tested our predictions in two eye- tracking reading experiments and one sentence-completion experiment. Turkish L2 learners’ on- line reference resolution in reading experiments was different from that of English native speakers that were tested in a previous study. In the eye-tracking experiments, Turkish L2 learners did not show evidence of using a recency strategy to resolve referential ambiguity and did not use spatial- temporal or focusing features of this and that to assign referents. On the other hand, in the sentence- completion experiment, the effect of prominence of discourse structure in the use of this and that was qualitatively similar to that of English native speakers, but their indexing of the degree of focus of this and that was different. Our results suggest that the difference between Turkish L2 learners and English native speakers is due to L1 interference.

Purpose: The present study investigated the extent to which background knowledge of the French language could influence English vocabulary learning among EFL university students in Algeria. More specifically, the possible cross-linguistic influence in this context was researched in relation to the growth pattern of the receptive written vocabulary size across the three years of the undergraduate course. Methodology: A cross-sectional research design was used for a total number of 184 EFL Algerian university students. The written receptive vocabulary size was measured using Nation's Vocabulary Size Test (2007) which contained many words with similar orthographic forms as their French equivalents. A comparison between the results of the whole population made it possible to establish the progressive growth pattern from Year 1 to Year 3 of the degree course. Results: Besides a moderate increase of vocabulary size from one proficiency level to the other, and an expected decrease pattern of knowledge from the most frequent English words to the least frequent ones, the positive cross-linguistic influence of French cognates was highly significant as it led to the knowledge of words that were beyond the expected level of most participants. Conclusion/Implication: The facilitative effect of French cognates for EFL learners in Algerian universities is, therefore, an area that instructors and syllabus designers can make use of to maximize the vocabulary learning process.

While it has long been assumed that brain plasticity declines significantly with growing maturity, recent studies in adult subjects show grey and white matter changes due to language learning that suggest high adaptability of brain structures even within short time-scales. It is not known yet whether other language development phenomena, such as attrition, may also be linked to structural changes in the brain. In behavioral and neurocognitive research on language attrition and crosslinguistic influence, findings suggest high plasticity as language interaction patterns of bilingual speakers change constantly and from early stages of language acquisition onwards. In this paper we will speculate on possible links between brain plasticity and L1 attrition in adult bilinguals, with particular attention to a number of factors that are put forward in memory frameworks in order to explain forgetting: time elapsed, frequency of L1 use, and interference from L2. In order to better understand the time-scales involved in the plastic changes during bilingual development, we then discuss some recent studies of re-exposure to L1 in formerly attrited immigrants, and their implications with respect to brain plasticity.

Simultaneous bilingual children sometimes display crosslinguistic influence (CLI), widely attested in the domain of morphosyntax. It remains less clear whether CLI affects bilinguals’ event construal, what motivates its occurrence and directionality, and how developmentally persistent it is. The present study tested predictions generated by the structural overlap hypothesis and the co-activation account in the motion event domain. 96 English–French bilingual children of two age groups and 96 age-matched monolingual English and French controls were asked to describe animated videos displaying voluntary motion events. Semantic encoding in main verbs showed bidirectional CLI. Unidirectional CLI affected French path encoding in the verbal periphery and was predicted by the presence of boundary-crossing, despite the absence of structural overlap. Furthermore, CLI increased developmentally in the French data. It is argued that these findings reflect highly dynamic co-activation patterns sensitive to the requirements of the task and to language-specific challenges in the online production process.

The research paper is entitled “Analysis on GraError of Student’s Writing Descriptive Text”. The aims of the research were to find out what kinds of grammatical error made by eight grade students of SMP Negeri 1 Pasirjambu in writing descriptive text and to analyze what causes of the grammatical error in writing descriptive text. The sample of the data was collected by giving writing test , which consisted of 31 students. Qualitative research was used by the researcher as the research method. From the total of 246 sentences of the samples, the research finding showed that misformation was the highest error that students made in writing descriptive text. The percentage of the errors was 104 (53%) from the total error 196. Whereas, the lowest percentage of the error was found in misordering with the percentage 19 (10%). On the other hand, there were some causes of the error made by students of the eight grade of Junior High School in writing descriptive text suc as the language interference, carelessness and translation. The highest cause of error on percentage 53% was found in first language interference. Meanwhile, the lowest cause of error was translation with the total percentage 10 %. It showed that the students still had difficulties in writing descriptive text. It was caused by the language interference, the second was Therefore, the teacher had to give the appropriate method for the students in teaching descriptive text and using appripiate media and interesting material to help them easy to understand the lesson. So that the error related to writing descriptive text could be minimized. Key words: Descriptive text, error, error analysis, grammar

Linguistic studies focusing on monolinguals have often examined individuals with considerable experience using another language. Results of a methodological review suggest that conflating ostensibly ‘multicompetent’ individuals with monolinguals is still common practice. A year-long longitudinal study of speech production demonstrates why this practice is problematic. Adult native English speakers recently arrived in Korea showed significant changes in their production of English stops and vowels (in terms of voice onset time, fundamental frequency, and formant frequencies) during Korean classes and continued to show altered English production a year later, months after their last Korean class. Consistent with an I ncidental P rocessing H ypothesis (IPH) concerning the processing of ambient linguistic input, some changes persisted even in speakers who reported limited active use of Korean in their daily life. These patterns thus suggest that the linguistic experience obtained in a foreign language environment induces and then prolongs restructuring of the native language, making the multicompetent native speaker in a foreign language environment unrepresentative of a monolingual in a native language environment. Such restructuring supports the view that one’s native language continues to evolve in adulthood, highlighting the need for researchers to be explicit about a population under study and to accordingly control (and describe) language background in a study sample.

ملخص البحث هدفت هذه الدراسة الحالية إلى جمع المورفيمات الإندونيسية المضافة إلى المحادثة باللغة العربية لدى طالبات الإعداد اللغوي بجامعة الراية وتصنيفها، والتنبيه عليها والإرشاد إلى تصويبها، ومعرفة أهم الأسباب التي أدت إلى شيوع هذا الكم المزعج من الألحان في لغة الضاد، ومن ثم تقديم الطرق المقترحة المناسبة لها. وسلكت الباحثة في هذا البحث المدخل الكيفي من بحث وصفي تحليلي على منهج دراسة الحالة. وقامت الباحثة بجمع البيانات باستخدام طريقة المقابلة، والملاحظة، والدراسة الوثائقية. وأثبتت النتائج من هذه الدراسة وجود المورفيمات المضافة إلى المحادثة باللغة العربية لدى طالبات الإعداد اللغوي بجامعة الراية. وأما العوامل المؤدية إلى تلك الظواهر هي تأثير اللغة الأم في اللغة الثانية (العربية)، وعدم وجود مقابلة بعض المفردات الإندونيسية في اللغة العربية. وطرق علاج هذه الأخطاء هي: فرض الطالبات بتقليد النغمة وموسيقى الكلام العربي، وحفظ أساليب كلام العرب، وتوفير المشرفين والموجهين للأنشطة اللغوية. Abstract The aim of this study was to collecting Indonesian morphologies added to Arabic conversation made by the students of the Language Preparation Program at Al-Raayah Collage and classifying them, alerting them and guiding to correct them, and knowing the most important reasons that led to the prevalence of this disturbing amount of errors in "the language of the dad", then presenting the proposed methods appropriate to it. The researcher used the qualitative approach from a descriptive and analytical research on the case study approach. The researcher collected the data using the method of listening, speaking, interviewing and documentary study. And the results of this study proved the existence of the morphemes added to the conversation in the Arabic language among students of The Language Preparation Program of Al-Raayah Collage. The factors that lead to these phenomena are the influence of the mother tongue in the second language (Arabic), and the absence of equivalent words of some Indonesian vocabularies in Arabic language. And the ways to overcome these errors are: imposing female students by imitating the tone and music of Arabic speech, preserving the methods of the Arabs’ speech, and providing supervisors and mentors for language activities.

This paper discusses possible attrition of verb second (V2) word order in Norwegian heritage language by investigating a corpus of spontaneous speech produced by 50 2nd–4th generation heritage speakers in North America. The study confirms previous findings that V2 word order is generally stable in heritage situations, but nevertheless finds approximately 10% V2 violations. The cases of non-V2 word order are argued to be due to lack of activation of the heritage language grammar, making it vulnerable to crosslinguistic influence from the speakers’ dominant language. This crosslinguistic influence does not simply replace V2 by non-V2, but is argued to operate more indirectly, affecting (a) the distribution of contexts for V2 word order, and (b) introducing two new distinctions into the heritage language, one (indirectly) based on a similar distinction in the dominant language (a difference between adverbs and negation with respect to verb movement), the other based on frequency of initial elements triggering V2 in non-subject-initial declaratives. Together, these findings also indicate that crosslinguistic influence affects different contexts of V2 differently, providing support for analyses that treat V2 word order as the result of many smaller rules.

This paper explores the extent to which L1-Korean L2-English speakers’ L1 influences the computation of conversational implicatures for the definite and demonstrative determiners the and that in English. Both the and that denote unique referents, but that carries implication of contrast (Roberts, 2002). Following Submaxim 2 of the Gricean Quantity Maxim, using that instead of unmarked the implicates that the referent is being implicitly contrasted with other members of the same noun. Korean has no equivalent for the and the demonstrative ku ‘that’ is situated on the semantic scale between the and that. This partial overlap could influence L1-Korean L2-English speakers’ implicature computation even though ku also carries implication of contrast. Acceptability judgment data indicate that unlike native speakers, L2 speakers did not show sensitivity to infelicitous use of that, indicating difficulty computing implicatures. Results are discussed in terms of crosslinguistic influence at the semantics-pragmatics interface in L2 acquisition.

This paper reassessed the influence of Igbo segmentals on the teaching and learning of English sounds in the University of Nigeria Nsukka. It aimed to determine the extent to which phonological interference in Igbo language has negatively influenced the teaching and learning of the English phonemes. The study was anchored on Lado’s (1957) theory of Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH). The data for study were elicited from a ten-item questionnaire which was randomly distributed to 50 First Year students of the Department of English, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Again, the findings of previous researches were utilized to contrastively augment the primary data. Using both simple percentage system and Lado’s framework, the data were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively. The results showed that the recommendations of previous researches were yet to be fully implemented because there are still cases of language transfer at the level of phonology, particularly, the segmental level. Thus a good number of suggestions and recommendations were made to alleviate the problem.

Research shows that English possessive determiners (PDs) such as his and her are a challenge for L2 learners to acquire, and this difficulty has been attributed to several factors, including negative L1 transfer effects (White, Munoz, & Collins, 2007). What researchers have not yet considered is how PDs are acquired by learners whose L1 predicts positive transfer effects. To address this issue, the present study investigated the PD interlanguage of Brazilian Portuguese (BP) speakers. Unlike previously studied L1 groups, BP has a PD system that is similar to English in that grammatical gender of the PD is determined by the possessor (BP: o carro dele/dela, English: his/her car). The research questions we addressed were: (1) How does the PD interlanguage development of BP speakers compare with that of other L1 groups (as outlined in White’s (1998) framework)? (2) Are BP-speaking learners who are aware of the connection between dele/dela and his/her are more accurate in their use of English PDs than those who are not? and (3) Do teachers use learners’ L1 knowledge in their teaching of PDs? Adopting some of White’s (1998) methodology, the following instruments were used to answer these questions: two written (e.g., fill-in the blanks with his/her) and two oral tasks (e.g., picture descriptions) to assess students’ PD performance, stimulated recall interviews with learners to measure cross-linguistic awareness, and interviews with teachers to determine their pedagogical approach. The results showed that BP speaking learners exhibited advantages in their acquisition of his and her in comparison to previously studied L1 groups. Furthermore, students with awareness of the cross-linguistic dele/dela rule outperformed those who were unaware of the rule on two of the three tasks that were compared, although teachers negated any use of cross-linguistic pedagogies to teach PDs. These findings contribute to the research suggesting that pedagogical approaches that build awareness of L1/L2 similarities could be effective for supporting language learning

I would first of all like to thank the many authors who have provided commentaries on my keynote article ‘Microvariation in multilingual situations: The importance of property-by-property acquisition’ (Westergaard, 2021a). The keynote has generated significant and stimulating debate about central issues on crosslinguistic influence in multilingual language acquisition, and I find it especially welcome that the majority of the commentaries support and enhance the main idea of the keynote, viz. that L2/L3/Ln acquisition takes place as a step-wise process, property by property. The commentaries have provided supporting arguments, additional data, and suggestions for further research, but also new questions and critical comments. This response is divided into sections focusing on the following issues: Full transfer and the notion of copying, the definition of linguistic proximity, some terminological issues, research methodology, predictions, empirical support, and possible misinterpretations. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage).

提 要 自1997年以来, 香港地区的普通话教育推广得到了极大的发展。不过, 鉴于多方面的限制和原因, 香港学生的所说所写还是无可避免地带着明显的“港式中文”的特点。本文详细分析了香港大专学生普通话学习过程中各种“了”的偏误行为, 包括不需用“了”而误用“了”、该用“了”而未用“了”、“无时态标记句”、与“有”的误用, 离合词中错用“了”等各种情况, 发现以粤语为母语的香港学生在习得普通话“了”时, 主要表现为体标记不足 (underuse) 的错误, 迥异于其他汉语为二语习得者的体标记泛化(overuse)的常见错误。不仅如此, 我们还发现在“两文三语”或者三语 (trilingual)环境下香港学生对于“了”的各种偏误主要是受了学生课堂强势语言英语的“语际迁移”(language transfer) 所致, 而非受学生的母语和最常用的生活用语 --- 粤语的影响, 印证了多语习得中强大的“第二语言地位因素假设” (the L2 status factor hypothesis) 在香港学生的三语习得过程中同样存在。这一有趣的现象无疑为多语环境下的语言教学带来了启示。

Applied linguistic work claims that multilinguals’ non-native languages interfere with one another based on similarities in cognitive factors like proficiency or age of acquisition. Two experiments explored how trilinguals regulate control of native- and non-native-language words. Experiment 1 tested 46 Dutch–English–French trilinguals in a monitoring task. Participants decided if phonemes were present in the target language name of a picture, phonemes of non-target language translations resulted in longer response times and more false alarms compared to phonemes not present in any translation (Colomé, 2001). The second language (English) interfered more than the first (Dutch) when trilinguals monitored in their third language (French). In Experiment 2, 95 bilinguals learned an artificial language to explore the possibility that the language from which a bilingual learns a third language provides practice managing known-language interference. Language of instruction modulated results, suggesting that learning conditions may reduce interference effects previously attributed to cognitive factors.

This study examines the role of cross-linguistic transfer versus general processing strategy in two groups of heritage speakers ( n = 28 per group) with the same heritage language – Russian – and typologically different dominant languages: English and Estonian. A group of homeland Russian speakers ( n = 36) is tested to provide baseline comparison. Within the framework of the Competition model (MacWhinney, 2012), cross-linguistic transfer is defined as reliance on the processing cue prevalent in the heritage speaker’s dominant language (e.g. word order in English) for comprehension of heritage language. In accordance with the Isomorphic Mapping Hypothesis (O’Grady and Lee, 2005), the general processing strategy is defined in terms of isomorphism as a linear alignment between the order of the sentence constituents and the temporal sequence of events. Participants were asked to match pictures on the computer screen with auditorily presented sentences. Sentences included locative or instrumental constructions, in which two cues – word order (basic vs. inverted) and isomorphism mapping (isomorphic vs. nonisomorphic) – were fully crossed. The results revealed that (1) Russian native speakers are sensitive to isomorphism in sentence processing; (2) English-dominant heritage speakers experience dominant language transfer, as evidenced by their reliance primarily on the word order cue; (3) Estonian-dominant heritage speakers do not show significant effects of isomorphism or word order but experience significant processing costs in all conditions.

In contrast, we made a study of the distinction between language attrition and the phenomenon of "languages disappearance ", which including language transfer, aphasia and Alzheimer''s dementia, language endangerment, and forgetting through the five attributes of generations relationship, occurrence mechanism, target groups, influencing factors and existence forms. We found though they are in the same category of "disappearance of languages", it appears a big difference between them by their nature. Meanwhile, we take a contrast for differences. Therefore, dividing "language disappear" into language macroscopic disappear and language microscopic disappear on further.

This research about The Effect of Using Language Interference in ELT Writing Class at The Tenth Grade of Athirah Bone. It is intended to find out two problems of writing. The first problem is the types of errors made by the students in students’ writing skills of the tenth grade of Athirah Bone. This research used a qualitative method by implementing interview. The sample consisted of 9 students from Athirah Bone. The result shows that the students’ perception of the types of students’ errors in writing consist of five perceptions. The first is students’ perceptions relate to the feeling. The second is students’ perceptions relate with the first language’ influence students in mastering the second language. The third is the students’ perception relates to the students’ experiences and kinds of interferences that students have made on writing. The fourth is the students’ perception relates to the factors that cause students to do interfere in writing. The last is about the students’ perception of the difficulties in writing. The second problem is the factors that cause students to do interfere in writing through the observation, it is found that there are four factors that make the students of the tenth grade of Athirah Bone do interfere in writing. The first is do not master spelling. The second is still confused about using the article. The third is Missing using singular and plural nouns. The last is missing space.

Conversely to plenty of studies describing how L1 transfer affects L2 systems, where the two grammars, L1/L2, often only come to interact later in life, less is known of dominant language transfer in heritage language grammars. Unlike in L2 speakers, the dominant language of the heritage speaker potentially affects its weaker language already from childhood. Evidence of dominant language transfer, however, exists in language production studies focusing on syntax. Therefore, an oral structural priming task was employed to compare transfer effects in advanced Swedish speakers of Italian and early heritage Italian speakers dominant in Swedish. Intrinsic to this comparison is the Basic Continuity hypothesis (Romano 2018), which proposes that highly proficient L2 speakers integrate semantic and syntactic information relevant to an L2 property lacking in the L1 in native-like ways. Results showed that heritage and L2 grammars are similarly impervious to transfer effects and coordinate structural and lexico-semantic information in native-like ways, consistent with the Basic Continuity. Divergence from native controls is shown to be remarkably compatible with monolingual grammars at earlier developmental stages.

The article is aimed at revealing some crucial languags interferences that happened to Sasak students who were learning English. The Sasak itself is a sub-Austronesian language spoken by most citizens who live in Lombok and half of western Sumbawa. These language interferences play very important roles either in helping the students mastering eng English or challenging them. The positive interferences brought easiness to the students of Sasak to master English vocabularies. On the other hand, the negative interferences caused difficulties for students to learn English as their second language.The article say that defining the language interferences between Sasak and English brought some positive effects, particularly it is a real endeavor to help the lecturers, teachers, and instructors of English in conducting the teaching and learning practices. The research was conducted for the sake of findingpieces of evidences of these interferences issues. The interview was conducted by involving Sasak students who were learning English. Moreover, a writing test of vocabulary was also conducted to confirm the existance of language interferences when they are producing English words. Went through the research, it was concluded that some morphemes that exited in the Sasak were a lot similar to morphemes existed in English. Positively, this fact brought good effects on students who were learning English. Unfortunately, the accent in pronouncing those words was completely different, which then challenged the students to master the English vocabularies.

This research deals with the influence of Portuguese syntax on the learning of English as a Foreign Language, specifically the null subject parameter. This paper aims at seeing the influence of Portuguese syntax on the learning of English, mainly the influence of Portuguese phonological null subjects in the pupils’ formulation of English sentences. An additional goal is to verify whether Portuguese syntax, especially the null Portuguese Subject had an influence on the 11th-graders’ formulation of the English sentences. In this respect, it was hypothesized that if there is L1 possibility of null subject transfer in the formulation of English sentences, then 11th-graders will often drop the English subject; It is expected that 11th-graders of “Class B8” outperform those of “Class B7” as far as the English subject is concerned. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were adopted. On the other hand, the statistical tests used in this research in order to verify the invalidation or validation of hypotheses are the t-test and the matched t-test. From the investigation conducted in this research, it was found that all the eleventh-graders to whom the test was subjected omitted the subject in their formulation of the English sentences.

In this article, we conduct a comparative analysis of the category of verbal aspect in the Russian and Spanish languages. We assume that a comparative analysis of linguistic phenomena in different languages is important in teaching Russian as a foreign language, since taking into account the students’ native language makes it easier to teach certain linguistic features when such features are identical in two languages. At the same time, it helps students avoid negative linguistic interference, which is the cause of many typical errors. The relevance of this topic is due to the constant increase in the number of Spanish-speaking students coming to study at preparatory faculties for foreign citizens at Russian universities. The topic Verbal Aspects is one of the most difficult ones to understand for foreigners, including those who speak Spanish. First of all, it is due to the peculiarities of the use and perception of this category in the students’ native language. The purpose of this article is to identify the peculiar features of conveying aspectual meanings, the similarities and differences in the use of the category of verbal aspect in both languages in order to subsequently develop ethno-oriented exercises for Spanish-speaking students, as well as to develop recommendations for providing ethno-oriented materials for a Hispanic audience. The following research methods are used in the article: the method of systemic-functional analysis, the method of complex theoretical analysis of the phenomenon under study, the method of comparative analysis that allows us to observe similarities and differences in the grammatical category of verbal aspect in Russian and in Spanish. In this article, we analyzed three possible ways for conveying Russian verbal aspects in Spanish: lexical, peripheral and morphological. However, if in Russian it may be enough to replace an imperfective verb with a perfective verb in order to change the meaning of a sentence, then in Spanish the structure of the entire sentence often changes. Thus, we cannot talk about the existence of a Spanish grammatical category analogous to the verbal aspect in the Russian language. The analysis will help us take into account the difficulties and cases of negative linguistic interference faced by Spanish-speaking students when studying the Russian verbal aspects, and create ethno-oriented exercises aimed at minimizing the students’ errors.

Language skills depend on the meaning of words and the knowledge of the subject/context. The meanings of words that shape the true understanding of contexts are needed to experience language as a real-life activity. College students in Saudi Arabia struggle to develop desired proficiency in the English language that is required to further advance in their academic endeavours. It has been observed that even the minimum vocabulary level is far to be realised as reality, which consequently has posed a challenge for the various stakeholders to find the most effective strategies for Saudi learners. The present study tries to unfold the basic components which are needed to be in order first before considering the other related factors. In this study, a total of 85 male and female students were asked first appear for the vocabulary test, required to assess if they have achieved their desired levels. Their academic achievement in the specialised vocabulary course and their achievement in the standardised test have been compared with their strategies for language learning. The differences in the responses of the high achievers and the low achievers observed and found that high achievers give importance to all the strategies equally well, whereas the low achievers just focus on meta-cognitive and memory strategies. The results open up new dimensions for the teachers as well as the learners to choose and implement the best practices suited as per their academic and non-academic needs. Besides this, the other stakeholders like material developers, curriculum designers, educators and trainers will also have a macro picture of inside and outside of classrooms so that they could narrow down on the associated elements (motivation, learners’ autonomy, socio-cultural contexts etc.).

ISESCO Educational Centre in Malaysia (ISESCO Malaysia), in collaboration with the Islamic Education Department of Ministry of Education, Malaysia, offers various annual language activities to improve the level of Arabic language usage among secondary school students in Malaysia. One of the languages activities organised by ISESCO Malaysia annually, is an Arabic Short Film Competition. It is noticeable that there are variety of Arabic language usage errors appeared in the videos presented, including those resulting from language interference effect. Some of these errors are often repeated by students, believing that it is a sound of Arabic language. This study therefore, conducted to examine the errors of language interference effect and its causes among Arabic learners in Malaysia’s secondary school. The study has followed the descriptive approach to analyse these errors. The study found that linguistic errors among Arabic students in Malaysian secondary schools resulted from language interference effect of their mother tongue; by literally translating it, following the culture and rules, as well as lack of knowledge of the rules of the language and culture of the Arabic language. This study proposed an appropriate action to solve the problems using educational approach.

Language learning is an interactive, social effort and the role of grammar is no longer focused. Nowadays we consider most language learners to be pluricultural beings aiming at communicative language competence (cf. CEFR 2018) in another language. The role of grammar, thus, plays a subordinate role. Authentic language usage requires the analysis of authentic dialogues (via the Mixed Game Model, MGM) and awareness-raising regarding the phenomenon of language transfer (via Crosslinguistic-influence approaches). These two approaches will be merged within the article – addressed to linguists as well as language teachers.

Writing as a productive skill is challenging for the learners as it requires rich linguistic and cognitive abilities to match words with ideas well. A learner of any language as Second Language (SL), for example English, Arabic, Chinese, or German, enters an early, natural, and inevitable stage of making various errors in writing compositions. The errors could be due to dissimilar linguistic systems of the two languages (L1 and L2) or the lack of understanding the SL linguistic rules. This study focuses on investigating the frequent and common inter-lingual errors (the negative influence) committed by Arabic-speaking learners of English as Second Language (ESL). The study is based on Error Analysis (EA) of the essays of a group of English major undergraduate students from the University of Bisha, Al-Namas, Saudi Arabia. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) is included to predict most of the errors in the collected samples. The findings of the study show that common errors in the data are interlingual (54.03%). The errors within the Grammatical Category include the misuse of tenses, dropping the subjects, dropping verb to be-copular and word order misplacement. The majority of errors in the study are due to the interference of L1 linguistic system including the different orthographic, phonological, morpho-syntactic components. For instance, the participants’ dropping subjects in English can be attributed to the fact that Arabic as L1 and as Null Subject Language (NSL), unlike English, allows subject drop. The results also find that within the Lexical Category, preposition and article errors are the most frequent errors and that spelling errors are the most dominant errors within the Mechanics Category. The study gives some pedagogical implications and suggestions to avoid and minimize the interlingual errors of such type. For instance, teachers need to focus more on enlightening their students about the contrastive language systems from the early stage of learning ESL.

В статье описываются основные фонетико-фонологические проявления интерферирующего влияния русского языка в речи военнослужащих при изучении английского языка. The article describes basic examples of phonetic and phonological interference of the Russian language in the speech of military students studying the English language.

Analiza kontrastywna polsko-włoska a tłumaczenie leksyki specjalistycznej na przykładzie terminologii medycznej. Artykuł mieści się w nurcie polsko-włoskich badań kontrastywnych ukierunkowanych na badanie zagadnień związanych z przekładem w oparciu o analizę językoznawczą leksyki specjalistycznej. Przedmiotem analizy są terminy medyczne, za pomocą których obydwa języki wyrażają „zapalenie”: polskim analitycznym i w pełni przejrzystym semantycznie terminom (zapalenie płuc, zapalenie jamy ustnej) odpowiadają włoskie, które cechuje mniejsza przejrzystość semantyczna i syntetyczna (jednowyrazowa) struktura z sufiksem ‑ite (polmonite, stomatite). Specyfika porównywanych terminów powoduje, że trudności z ich tłumaczeniem ograniczają się do przekładu na włoski i dotyczą wyboru odpowiedników terminologicznych lub opisowych. Dla przykładu zapalenie płuc może być oddane przy zastosowaniu terminu specjalistycznego - jako polmonite lub przy zastosowaniu odpowiednika opisowego - jako infiammazione/flogosi polmonare i/lub infiammazione dei/ai polmoni). Próba analizy konkretnych przykładów tłumaczeń prowadzi do konkluzji, że wybór jednego z potencjalnie możliwych odpowiedników opisowych może być zarówno wynikiem świadomego i celowego wyboru tłumacza (zastosowania np. eksplicytacji), jak i wynikiem interferencji językowej (kalki struktury polskiej). Wobec trudności związanych z jednoznacznym określeniem czy zastosowane w przekładzie rozwiązanie jest eksplicytacją czy wynikiem interferencji nasuwają się wątpliwości natury metodologicznej odnoszące się do badań nad tzw. uniwersaliami tłumaczeniowymi (do których zaliczana jest m.in. eksplicytacja).

The present study compared the relationship between Dutch phonological awareness (rhyme awareness, initial phoneme isolation), Dutch speech decoding and Dutch receptive vocabulary in two groups in different linguistic environments: 30 Mandarin Chinese-Dutch bilingual children and 24 monolingual Dutch peers. Chinese vocabulary and phonological awareness were taken into account in the bilingual group. Bilingual children scored below their Dutch monolingual counterparts on all Dutch tasks. In the bilingual group, Dutch rhyme awareness was predicted by Dutch speech decoding, both directly, and indirectly via Dutch receptive vocabulary. When adding Chinese proficiency to the model, Chinese rhyme awareness was found to mediate the relationship between Dutch speech decoding and Dutch rhyme awareness. It can thus be concluded that second language (L2) phonological awareness in Chinese-Dutch kindergartners is affected by their L2 speech and vocabulary level, on the one hand, and their level of phonological awareness in the first language (L1).

In today’s world, educational contexts are getting increasingly multicultural. Although EFL (English as a Foreign Language) classes in Turkey were mostly composed of Turkish students a decade ago, today students from any part of the world are brought together within the frame of various student exchange programs. In Turkish EFL contexts, students coming from Middle Eastern countries make up a huge part of classes (A–zer, 2016). The objective of the current study is to examine L1 negative interference errors of Turkish and Arabic EFL learners. Accordingly, 30 B1 (Intermediate) EFL students’ written assignments were examined and divided into categories. Besides, this study makes a comparative analysis of Turkish and Arabic EFL learners' grammatical and lexical errors within the frame of L1 negative transfer. When the results of the Mann-Whitney U test are analyzed, it is understood that Turkish and Arabic students' grammatical interference exam scores differ statistically (p

Recent developments in the study of crosslinguistic influence have started to account for how the dynamic interaction between language and cognition influences transfer phenomena. This study examined the acquisition and use of referring expressions in narratives produced by 80 English-dominant learners of Chinese representing two proficiency levels (Low vs. High) and two linguistic backgrounds (Foreign Language vs. Heritage Language), as compared to two baseline groups of 40 Chinese native speakers (NSs) and 40 English NSs. Results showed that, while heritage language learners (HLLs) demonstrated a more idiomatic use of referential forms to introduce new characters and maintain reference to them than did foreign language learners (FLLs) at the same low-proficiency level, the advantage of early language exposure diminished at the high-proficiency level when HLLs were compared to High FLLs who had prolonged in-country experience. Meanwhile, three types of production errors persisted, including (i) failing to use definite reference when obligatory for simple bare nouns, (ii) struggling to supply item-specific classifiers, and (iii) avoidance of zero anaphora, when discourse coherence would prefer such a strategy. All three of these features involve the restructuring of L1 preferences to accommodate L2-specific patterns due to L1-L2 typological differences.

The knowledge of spelling cannot be earned by learning the relations between the sounds and graphemes. However, this study shows that the learners' knowledge is not a mere result of simple memorization. The current study found that the learners’ spelling knowledge is interwoven with their established phonemic inventory and their imperfect knowledge of the target language spelling. Using a learner corpus (KNU English Learner Corpus) constructed from young learners, primary school grades from 4 to 6, enrolled in a gifted English program, we extracted and examined 125 erroneously spelled words each from the basic level and the advanced level subcorpus. Building on Justicia et al. (1999), the error data were classified into six categories and an additional category of morpheme error (MOR) with substitution and omission errors accounting for 76.3% of the total errors. Conducting further analysis, we were able to identify typical cases of the errors and the underlying causes inducing the errors. Generally speaking, the substitution error is found to be due to the variability between grapheme and sound whereas the omission error is often caused by the learners’ tendency to prefer simpler graphemephoneme relations. There also exists considerable intervention of the learners' Korean phonemic inventory, particularly in lower level learners. The findings from this study can be used to provide various specific guides for effective spelling instruction and help learners become more confident about their writing.

The Interface Hypothesis proposes that the pragmatic-discursive interface with syntax is more vulnerable to crosslinguistic influence than the syntactic-semantic interface [Tsimpli, Ianthi, and Ant...

L2 prosody is particularly difficult to acquire, because it requires an understanding of intonation, syntax, and pragmatics. For example, to acquire English sentence types, speakers must learn that statements (Ss) and absolute yes/no questions (AQs) are syntactically and prosodically marked, whereas the difference between Ss and declarative questions (DQs) is purely prosodic. Moreover, DQs can only occur in restricted contexts, such as to express surprise. In this paper, we examine the L2 perception and comprehension of English sentence types, by speakers of three typologically distinct L1s (Spanish, Mandarin, Inuktitut), with the goal of investigating the role of crosslinguistic influence (CLI). Spanish uses only intonation (a higher initial pitch accent and final rising boundary tone) to distinguish Ss from AQs and DQs, whereas in Mandarin, questions (AQs and DQs) can be syntactically identical to statements or marked by the lexical particle –ma. Mandarin also has a prosodic distinction between broad focus and echo questions (which are similar to English AQs and DQs). In contrast, Inuktitut has a very restricted use of pitch, and primarily marks questions morphologically. Learners of each L1 and English controls performed three tasks that varied in the amount of contextual and linguistic information available. Our results revealed evidence of both positive and negative CLI. Inuktitut and Mandarin speakers demonstrated some tendencies to focus more on syntax than intonation. Moreover, the Mandarin speakers were the most successful at acquiring the pragmatic distinction between AQs and DQs, which we argue is due to a similar contrast in Mandarin.

Aims and objectives/purpose/research question: The expression of event series varies across languages in intriguing ways. One key difference is that in some linguistic systems, such as Chinese, events can be tightly sequenced using serial verb constructions (SVCs), for example, qù kāi mén ‘go open door’. Linguistic systems with this property are known as serializing, and those without it, such as English, as non-serializing. This paper explores whether second language (L2) learners with a serializing first language (L1) conceptually transfer tight L1-based event serialization patterns into their non-serializing L2, and, if L2 learners with a non-serializing L1 acquire tight SVC-modulated event serialization in the L2. Design/methodology/approach: To investigate this, a task was created to estimate temporal distances between events on a time axis. Participants were asked to circle two numbers on the axis (0 = far past, 9 = far future) based on their understanding of when two events expressed by two verbs in each stimulus sentence happen. Data and analysis: Results showed that Chinese learners of English estimated significantly shorter temporal distances between multiple events in English SVC-like sentences compared to English natives. Tighter temporal sequencing in L2 English is interpreted as L1-based conceptual transfer of event serialization patterns. In the opposite direction, English learners of Chinese marked events in Chinese SVCs as significantly further apart than did Chinese natives, also showing that their event serialization is L1-based. Originality: This study demonstrates for the first time crosslinguistic influence on the conceptual level in the domain of event serialization. Significance/implications: The reported findings inform L2 acquisition research by providing empirical support for the idea that L1-based event serialization patterns influence how L2 learners conceptualize event distances, and this holds in both directions, from a serializing to a non-serializing language as well as vice versa.

Este trabajo de investigación trata sobre las interferencias fonéticas-fonológicas presentes en relatos de vida de inmigrantes portugueses en Venezuela. La utilidad de este estudio radica en el hecho de que el fenómeno migratorio, en el que dos culturas se encuentran, influyéndose mutuamente, es universal; por lo que la comprensión del principal vehículo integrador como lo es la lengua debe ser objeto de estudio minucioso. Nuestro objetivo de investigación es clasificar las interferencias lingüísticas en el discurso oral de los inmigrantes portugueses que llegaron a Venezuela en el periodo 1950 a 1980, conforme a la clasificación de las interferencias fonéticas-fonológicas de Porto (2009), Niño (2007) y Obediente (2007). Utilizamos un cuestionario y la técnica de la entrevista. La muestra estuvo constituida por 26 sujetos elegidos al azar. Utilizamos el Software Atlas ti versión 8.0 para identificar la frecuencia de las interferencias fonéticas-fonológicas en los relatos de vida. Las interferencias fonéticas-fonológicas más recurrentes fueron las de sustitución de vocablos con un 55 % de frecuencia, las de reducción de fonemas con 25 % y finalmente con un 20 % las de incrementación de sonidos. Concluimos que ocurrió un estancamiento en la evolución de la interlengua, es decir, se evidencia una fosilización de L2.

In recent years, some studies have been conducted on the transfer of the first and second language to the third language in order to investigate cross-linguistic influence. This study aims to analyse the causes of cross-linguistic effects by examining the transfer of L1 and L2 during the L3 acquisition. A total of 7 individuals who learn Italian as L3 participated in the study. Individuals' attitudes in the classroom, writing examples and classroom conversations were examined, their opinions were taken and the effects of L1 and L2 on L3 were examined. The study results show that the more learned languages are typologically close, the easier it is to learn. It also demonstrates that there is no exact evidence in transfer between languages.

Language transfer is one of the important areas in second language acquisition research. This study aims to describe the process of transfer L1, Bahasa Indonesia, cognitive skills to L2, English, cognitive skills of dependent scripts. Cognitive skills are the skills that support decoding, such as rapid automatized naming (RAN) and working memory (WM). This research was conducted with descriptive qualitative research design, with case study. The subjects of the study were 15 students who speak Bahasa as the first language (L1) and learn English as the second language (L2). Bahasa and English are the language which have the same scripts, dependent scripts. The subjects were given the rapid automatized naming (RAN) test and working memory (WM) test. The data of this study was analyzed with two data analysis techniques, they were non-parametric statistics and qualitative data analysis. The finding of this study was that there was no significantly transfer of cognitive skills from L1, Bahasa, to L2, English. It can be seen from the process of transfer RAN and WM as the subskills, that most of the students made different errors both in L1 and L2 RAN and WM, and they have different levels of achievement in L1 and L2 cognitive skills.

Languages differ in the preferences for the interpretation of the scope relation between negation and a quantifier. This study investigates the understudied issue of how interpretive preferences associated with a quantifier scope in learners’ L1 and L2 affect their scope interpretations in L3 acquisition. Based on the current models of L3 acquisition, we tested which language, L1 or L2, exerts a stronger effect on the L3 acquisition of quantifier scope. To this end, the study involved two groups of multilingual children (11–13 years old) with different L1s (Chinese or Russian) but with the same L2 (Korean) and L3 (English). The participants completed truth-value judgment tasks designed to investigate their interpretation patterns for English sentences with negation and a quantifier (e.g., Tom did not cut all the trees). The results showed that both groups preferred the L3 interpretation similar to that preferred in their L2, but not in their L1, suggesting a potential L2 influence on L3 acquisition. The study evaluates L3 acquisition theories in light of these results.

English language is one of the most important and second language after Bahasa Melayu, which is also a national language in Malaysia. Writing in English language is one of the most difficult skills for Malaysian students, especially if they do not have a good proficiency in the language. Objective of this study is to identify L2 (English) syntax transferred negatively and positively from L1 (Bahasa Melayu) in writing English (L2) essays among Form Two secondary school students. The design of this study is a qualitative which is appropriate to identify the phenomena. The data collection instruments were document analysis and interview. To execute this study, 20 writing samples were chosen from low proficiency level of students. They were instructed to write about 100 word essays on a given topic in English language. The syntax was later corroborated and compared to substantiate the theoretical arguments in the field of language transfer. From the findings, it was found that first language highly interferes in students' English language writing skills. In addition, it was found that the sample employed a translation method although they understand the significance of English language worldwide. To conclude, more actions should be taken in order to teach contrastive analysis for a better understanding of the differences in the syntax between Bahasa Melayu and English language.

The neural mechanisms underlying one's own language production and the comprehension of language produced by other speakers in daily communication remain elusive. Here, we assessed how self‐language production and other‐language comprehension interact within a language switching context using event‐related functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (er‐fMRI) in 32 unbalanced Chinese‐English bilinguals. We assessed within‐modality language interference during language production and comprehension as well as cross‐modality interference when switching from production to comprehension and vice versa. Results revealed that the overall effect of production (across switch and repeat trials) was larger in the cross‐modality than within‐modality condition in a series of attentional control areas, namely the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex and left precuneus. Furthermore, the left precuneus was recruited more strongly in switch trials compared to repeat trials (i.e., switching costs) in within‐production conditions but not in the cross‐modality condition. These findings suggest that switching from production to comprehension recruits cognitive control areas to successfully implement switches between modalities. However, cross‐language interference (in the form of language switching costs) mainly stems from the self‐language production system., The current study tested how self‐language production and other‐language comprehension interact within a language switching context. We found that other language behaviors affect our own language production via a series of attentional control areas, namely, the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and left precuneus, but cross‐language interference mainly stems from the self‐language system via the left precuneus.