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The problem of how many performance outcomes to use and how specific they should be in predicting satisfaction and behavioral intentions was addressed. 323 soldiers responded to a desirability and instrumentality scale for each of 16 potential outcomes obtainable from outstanding performance. Scores were factor analysed and composites were formed to reflect each dimension. Three criteria (satisfaction, perceived effort and intention to reenlist) were predicted using (a) all 16 outcome items, (b) only 11 items defining four outcome dimensions and (c) 4 items only, each item reflecting an outcome dimension. In all cases, the 11-item set was a better predictor than the 16-item set, and the 4-item set was nearly as effective as the 16-item set. Instrumentalities were found to be significantly better predictors of satisfaction than of effort, while the reverse was true of valences. It was suggested that adequacy of coverage of the out come domain rather than list length or outcome specificity, was the critical issue in improving predictability.

The role of valence and instrumentality was examined in predicting three work-related criteria in a military setting: satisfaction, perceived effort, and turnover. A total of 323 enlisted men responded to desirability and instrumentality scales for each of four categories of performance outcomes: extrinsic rewards, personal fulfillment, recognition, and autonomy. Multiple regression analyses indicated that the different outcome types varied substantially in their relationship to the criteria, ranging from strongly positive to no relationship to strongly negative. Furthermore, the salience of valences and instrumentalities changed as a function of the criterion being predicted in a manner not deducible from current expectancy-valence models. Several implications of the results were discussed in terms of assumptions underlying general expectancy-valence approaches to motivation.

The moderating effect of soldiers' race was examined for responses to valences and instrumentalities of outcomes, as well as satisfaction, reported effort, and intention to reenlist. Subjects were 218 white and 54 black soldiers. Results tended to confirm previous findings regarding generally more positive responses by blacks than whites and of a tendency for extrinsic factors to be more salient for blacks than whites. However, the findings clearly indicated that over-all job satisfaction is most strongly related to perceived performance-outcome instrumentalities. This was equally true for both races and applied to both intrinsic and extrinsic outcomes.

Summary Dyadic performances on easy and difficult cross-word puzzles were examined for possible temporal changes in the ability-performance relationship. Ss were 144 male undergraduates. Results indicated that there were differences in the point in time at which member ability maximally predicted group performance, with the peak r tending to occur earlier on the difficult task than on the easy task. However, the maximum ability-performance relationship occurred earlier on tasks performed in a relatively favorable task-solving organizational structure. After reaching a peak, the ability-performance relationship declined over time, with this effect being most pronounced on the easy task.

Summary Several characteristics of Fiedler's (8, 9) least preferred co-worker (LPC) scales were investigated. It was found that although the LPC scales reflect two evaluative dimensions, there is a general negative evaluative component common to both dimensions. When asked to evaluate someone they had known in rating their least preferred co-worker, approximately two-thirds of the respondents rated a real person, while the other third rated a stereotyped stimulus object. LPC and its subfactors were found to be substantially unrelated to a large number of personality measures. Theoretical and methodological problems inherent in a bidimensional interpretation of a univariate score were discussed, and an alternative unidimensional approach was suggested.

Importance ratings of reasons for attending college were obtained from male and female undergraduates. Responses were compared for sex differences and were compared to the responses of subjects in the Constantinople (1967) study. The picture of college students that emerged is very different from those of previous studies. Current females did not emphasize career goals less, nor social goals more, than males. Current males were more interested in social aspects of college than were their male predecessors. Male and female concepts of success seemed to differ. To females challenge and accomplishment were most important; to males, complying with parental pressures and economic success were most important.

Some problems with the use of the LPC score in the Fiedler, Chemers, and Mahar Leader Match self-teaching book were identified and examined. The cutting scores defining high and low LPC were questioned because of inadequately developed norms and the alteration of the LPC scale from 16 to 18 items. The current procedures were estimated to create a substantial bias toward being inappropriately categorized as a high LPC individual.

The effects of three task solving strategies upon group efficiency and effectiveness were studied. Sixty soldiers worked in dyads under a shared labor strategy or one of two divided labor strategies. Tasks were a difficult and an easy crossword puzzle. On the average, dividing labor resulted in greater efficiency (amount of work per man-hour) while requiring Ss to work together resulted in substantially greater group effectiveness (total performance), but this effect occurred primarily on the easy task. It was suggested that a high degree of member interdependence maximizes redundancy of task-relevant abilities, resulting in generally superior performance effectiveness but frequently at the cost of efficiency.

The statistical and methodological adequacy of several aspects of Fiedler's (1967) contingency model of leadership effectiveness were considered. Data from several published studies were reanalyzed in order to accomplish this end. It was suggested that the use of rank order correlations instead of product moment correlations produces distortions related to sample size. LPC (least preferred coworker) was shown to be a reasonable predictor of group performance, but the model implies that LPC is unrelated to group performance under some conditions of situational favorableness. Problems with a multidimensional interpretation of LPC and a unidimensional interpretation of situational favorablness were discussed. Problems of research strategies used to test and validate the model were considered in terms of sample size, inclusion of nonsignificant results, the difficulty involved in adequately testing higher order interactions, and the inability to make between octant comparisons. It was concluded that the model is capable of directing meaningful research, but only as long as traditional research procedures designed to safeguard internal and external validity are carefully exercised.

Previous research on leadership effectiveness has often used criteria of one type and from one source. In this research, data on leadership effectiveness were collected with a variety of measures from different sources (leaders, peers, subordinates). Findings were analyzed for statistical convergence and by a multitrait-multimethod intercorrelation matrix. A satisfying degree of convergence but relatively little divergence appeared, and 47% of the variance was not accounted for by either one. Apparently, many measurement techniques or sources of data are essentially interchangeable. One cannot safely interpret results across different studies, however, because of the large amount of variance that remains unaccounted for by either convergent or divergent validity. The report is written for psychologists.

Leadership style and group effectiveness have been shown to be related to individual beliefs concerning the attribution of control of events. The individual believes that events are controlled either externally or by internal, personal forces. The research reported here involves measurement of the basic belief patterns and the investigation of the relationships with leadership style and group effectiveness. Survey instruments, including the Rotter Internal-External (I-E) scale, the Mach IV Machiavellian scale, Budner's Intolerance of Ambiguity scale, Fiedler's Least-Preferred Co-worker scale, and the Military Leadership Behavior Scale, were administered to 275 Special Forces Reserves during their 2-week active duty training period. Analysis of the results showed the factor structure of the Rotter I-E scale to be similar to the original, supporting the common idea of internal-external locus of behavioral control and, further, that locus of control beliefs are multidimensional. The concept of the I-E scale is sound and moderately useful in understanding reward expectations of soldiers and improving effectiveness of military units.

A 32-item Least-Preferred Coworker (LPC) scale was administered to 260 Army reservists participating in a field training exercise. The LPC scale yielded a 5-factor structure similar to a commonly recurring factor structure reported in the literature on peer ratings and implicit personality theory. Correlations between LPC factor scores and various performance criteria were examined for formal leaders, highest endorsed members, and nonendorsed members. Results suggest that the LPC dimensions are differentially predictive as a function of the criterion involved and the role of the individual in the team. Results were discussed in terms of item relevance and various psychometric properties of the LPC scale. The discovery of this particular 5-factor structure may represent a major step toward resolving the enigmatic quality of LPC by tying it to existing literature not dealing specifically with the LPC scale. There may be relationships between leader behavior and specific LPC dimensions.