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Persuasive appeals that are direct and explicit are easier to understand than appeals that are indirect and implicit (Bessarabova et al. Human Communication Research, 39, 339–364, 2013; Gardner and Leshner Health Communication, 31, 738–751, 2016; Miller et al. Human Communication Research, 33, 219–240, 2007). Unfortunately, as psychological reactance theory (PRT; Brehm 1966) contends, directive messages are often met with resistance due to the likelihood of their threatening a receiver’s perceived freedom and autonomy. In response, reactance researchers have undertaken the task of identifying strategies that attempt to utilize the strengths of directives (e.g., clarity) while mitigating the occurrence of reactance. In this article, we review these strategies and argue for the merits of direct and explicit language applied to pro-social and health related contexts. We conclude by examining strategies that use reactance as a persuasive tactic rather than an outcome to be avoided.

Psychological reactance theory posits that when people are faced with threats to, or elimination of, behavioral freedom, they experience an aversive motivational state (i.e., psychological reactance). Recent research indicates that people’s state of mind affects reactance arousal processes. We hypothesized that being in a state of threatening uncertainty would cause people to experience less psychological reactance to a freedom-threatening communication than those in a state of certainty. We randomly assigned 114 students from a North American University to an uncertainty- or certainty-inducing recall task; they were then exposed to a reactance-arousing message. Compared to participants primed to feel certain, those primed with threatening uncertainty reported significantly less threat and more positive attitudes in response to a freedom threatening communication. Mediation analysis revealed an indirect effect of feelings of threatening uncertainty on people’s behavioral intentions, through perceptions of the controlling message. Results support our hypothesis: people in a state of uncertainty experience less psychological reactance than those in a state of certainty.

Psychological reactance theory (PRT) posits that threats to people’s freedom elicit reactance, an aversive motivational state that triggers freedom restoration. The current chapter utilizes PRT as a vehicle for understanding phenomena related to religious beliefs and behavior. Our focus here is on outlining the ways in which social, political, or environmental threats to people’s religious freedom can arouse reactance and a variety of associated outcomes, including increased religious adherence. In addition, we illustrate the ways in which restrictive faith-based regulations can arouse reactance among adherents, outcomes of which could be heresy (i.e., holding a belief contrary to religious orthodoxy) and apostasy (i.e., renouncing religious affiliation). We also propose that religions can use strategies from communication research to allay reactance and increase message effectiveness. Finally, we suggest future directions for research at the intersection of PRT and religious behavior.

Interventions that increase help-seeking among people with depression have the potential to save lives. Several efforts have been impressively successful; however, research has also chronicled inconsistent results, with some endeavors indicating boomerang effects. The goal of the current analysis is to synthesize select findings from cognitive theorizing on depression with persuasion scholarship to explain how and why the combination of unfavorable attitudes toward help-seeking, attitudes that are increasingly resistant to influence, psychological reactance, and cognitive errors can result in challenging responses to messages encouraging help-seeking among people with depression. In addition, we highlight the importance of utilizing theory-based approaches to circumvent resistance to persuasion and provide an explanation as to why the provision of immediate help-seeking mechanisms could be a key aspect of successful intervention efforts. We also stress the importance of formative research and pilot testing, and warn against the potentially harmful error of assessing messages targeting people with depression on those without heightened levels of depressive symptomatology. Ideally, this effort will draw attention to the challenge of persuading people with depression to seek help and also motivate social psychologists to consider the ways they can use their craft to positively influence the health and well-being of people with depression.