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The rumen is divided into multiple rumen sacs based on anatomical structure, and each has its unique physiological environment. Tarim wapiti preserved roughage tolerance after domestication, and adaptation to the desertified environment led to the development of a unique rumen shape and intraruminal environment. In this work, six Tarim wapiti were chosen and tested for fermentation parameters, microbes, and histomorphology in four rumen areas (Dorsal sac, DS; Ventral sac, VS; Caudodorsal blind sac, CDBS; Caudoventral blind sac, CVBS). Tarim wapiti's rumen blind sac had better developed rumen histomorphology, the ventral sac was richer in VFAs, and the dominant bacteria varied most notably in the phylum Firmicutes, which was enriched in the caudoventral blind sac. The ventral sac biomarkers focused on carbohydrate fermentation-associated bacteria, the dorsal sac focused on N recycling, and the caudoventral blind sac identified the only phylum-level bacterium, Firmicutes; we were surprised to find a probiotic bacterium, Bacillus clausii, identified as a biomarker in the ventral sac. This research provides a better understanding of rumen fermentation parameters, microorganisms, and histomorphology in the Tarim wapiti rumen within a unique ecological habitat, laying the groundwork for future regulation targeting the rumen microbiota and subsequent animal production improvement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: The forestry industry provides important goods, services and economic benefits, but timber harvest can adversely impact ecosystem services, including wildlife habitat. Timber harvest planning can integrate wildlife habitat quality through multi-objective optimization for timber harvest and wildlife habitat suitability. Objectives: Our objective was to develop a method to find optimal solutions for timber harvest and wildlife habitat suitability individually and concurrently, then apply the method to Roosevelt elk (Cervus elaphus roosevelti) on Afognak Island, Alaska. Methods: We developed three seasonal habitat suitability models using elk locations and landscape variables including historical timber harvest on Afognak Island, Alaska. We used threshold-accepting optimization over a 50-year planning horizon to maximize timber harvest yield and habitat suitability in each season, then used multi-objective goal-deviation optimization to simultaneously maximize timber harvest volume and seasonal habitat suitability. Results: The optimal solution for timber yield decreased seasonal average habitat suitability by 5.7%. Elk habitat suitability and corresponding optimal solutions varied seasonally; elk generally selected open landcovers and early- to mid-successional timber stands over late-successional and mature stands. Therefore, in the optimal solutions, stands were harvested before they reached maximum volume and few stands were harvested in early planning periods, resulting in a seasonal average loss of 17.5% yield. Multi-objective optimization decreased seasonal average suitability by 3.9% and yield by 1.4% compared to single-objective optimization. Conclusions: Our multi-objective optimization approach that incorporates data-driven habitat suitability models using open-source software can enable managers to achieve desired quantity and quality of wildlife habitat while providing for resource extraction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: It is common practice to manage red deer on highly digestible easily harvested forage during winter on New Zealand deer farms, particularly in areas that experience low or no pasture growth during this period. However, not all individuals within these production systems perform equally. Aims: To investigate foraging behaviour of young red deer and liveweight gain of young red deer and wapiti crossbred sire lines when offered two contrasting winter forage diets. Methods: One hundred and sixty-three rising 1-year-old female red deer and red deer wapiti crossbreds representing five red deer and two wapiti sires, were split into two management groups balanced by sire and liveweight and managed on either an easily harvested highly digestible diet (forage kale) or a harder-to-harvest more poorly digestible diet (pasture) for a 6-week period during winter. Foraging behaviour was monitored on 95 red deer yearlings by using GPS collars over a 2-week period. Liveweights were recorded at the start and end of the 6-week period. Key results: Progeny managed on the kale treatment exhibited an extended activity period during the dawn period and a suppressed activity period during the middle of the day. Progeny managed on the pasture treatment exhibited frequent shorter activity periods from dawn to dusk. Time spent foraging and the number of foraging bouts greater than 5 min in duration were different among progeny of different sires. These differences in behaviour did not affect liveweight gain. Liveweight gain over the 6-week trial period was significantly higher for progeny from one wapiti sire than for all red deer sire progeny while being managed on the kale diet (P < 0.001), but there were no differences among progeny on the pasture diet. Conclusion: Foraging behaviour varied considerably between sire lines and appeared to vary between forage type, but there were no correlations between behaviour and liveweight gain in this trial. Implications: Forage type offered to young red deer may alter their foraging behaviour. Offering an easier to harvest high digestible forage diet may increase liveweight gain of progeny that have a higher genetic potential to grow during the winter period. Growth rate of young red deer over their first year of life is a key determinant of deer farm profitability and varies considerably across the industry, within farms and among years. GPS data collected from young deer managed on two contrasting winter feed types demonstrated foraging behaviour variation consistently between sire lines. Foraging behaviour did not explain the variation in productivity that is experienced in the industry in this trial, but indicated that beneficial foraging behaviour traits could be selected for in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human activity and associated landscape modifications alter the movements of animals with consequences for populations and ecosystems worldwide. Species performing long‐distance movements are thought to be particularly sensitive to human impact. Despite the increasing anthropogenic pressure, it remains challenging to understand and predict animals' responses to human activity. Here we address this knowledge gap using 1206 Global Positioning System movement trajectories of 815 individuals from 14 red deer (Cervus elaphus) and 14 elk (Cervus canadensis) populations spanning wide environmental gradients, namely the latitudinal range from the Alps to Scandinavia in Europe, and the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem in North America. We measured individual‐level movements relative to the environmental context, or movement expression, using the standardized metric Intensity of Use, reflecting both the directionality and extent of movements. We expected movement expression to be affected by resource (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, NDVI) predictability and topography, but those factors to be superseded by human impact. Red deer and elk movement expression varied along a continuum, from highly segmented trajectories over relatively small areas (high intensity of use), to directed transitions through restricted corridors (low intensity of use). Human activity (Human Footprint Index, HFI) was the strongest driver of movement expression, with a steep increase in Intensity of Use as HFI increased, but only until a threshold was reached. After exceeding this level of impact, the Intensity of Use remained unchanged. These results indicate the overall sensitivity of Cervus movement expression to human activity and suggest a limitation of plastic responses under high human pressure, despite the species also occurring in human‐dominated landscapes. Our work represents the first comparison of metric‐based movement expression across widely distributed populations of a deer genus, contributing to the understanding and prediction of animals' responses to human activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Teeth are commonly preserved in the zooarchaeological record and can be used to estimate the age of individuals in a faunal assemblage. However, there are currently no criteria for discerning the sex of elk based on dental metric characteristics. Here, we present the results of an osteometric analysis of modern elk (Cervus elaphus manitobensis) from Great Smoky Mountains National Park to create an age profile for the sample, establish metrical parameters for evaluating sex, and discern the relationship between age and size. The analysis of tooth development stages in younger elk was combined with the assessment of occlusal wear in older elk to create an age profile of our sample population. The length and breadth of mandibular third molars produced bimodal distributions that suggest these measurements can be used to differentiate sex in this population, and diastema length showed a curvilinear association with age (R2 = 0.71). This dataset provides a useful comparative sample for future studies on ageing and sexing in zooarchaeology, conservation paleobiology, and wildlife resources management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Puma (Puma concolor) is a wide-ranging, large felid species, and site-specific research on its diet is important for local management. Like the diets of other large felids, puma diets may differ between sex due to size dimorphism and between seasons due to changes in prey vulnerability and availability. We investigated the influence of sex and season on puma diet in southwest New Mexico in terms of prey species and size categories. Pumas (10 males, 6 females) were tracked with GPS collars for an average of one year per individual between February 2008 and July 2020. Puma location was recorded every 2 hours between 19:00 and 7:00, and kill sites were identified by a minimum of 2 GPS fixes occurring within 100 m and 100 hours of the first fix. Pumas specialized on mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and elk (Cervus elaphus) but also preyed upon a range of other species of different sizes. The probability of making a medium-sized kill such as a mule deer was higher for females than for males, while the probability of making an extra-large kill, such as an elk, was considerably greater for males than for females. There was substantial variation in prey species and size categories killed by individual pumas, particularly of smaller-sized prey like collared peccary (Pecari tajacu) and skunks (e.g., Spilogale gracilis, Mephitis mephitis). Our findings concur with previous research on the importance of mule deer and elk in puma diet, demonstrate individual variation in prey killed, and may have management implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasing resource extraction and human activity are reshaping species' spatial distributions in human‐altered landscape and consequently shaping the dynamics of interspecific interactions, such as between predators and prey. To evaluate the effects of industrial features and human activity on the occurrence of wolves (Canis lupus), we used wildlife detection data collected in 2014 from an array of 122 remote wildlife camera traps in Alberta's Rocky Mountains and foothills near Hinton, Canada. Using generalized linear models, we compared the occurrence frequency of wolves at camera sites to natural land cover, industrial disturbance (forestry and oil/gas exploration), human activity (motorized and non‐motorized), and prey availability (moose, Alces alces; elk, Cervus elaphus; mule deer, Odocoileus hemionus; and white‐tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus). Industrial block features (well sites and cutblocks) and prey (elk or mule deer) availability interacted to influence wolf occurrence, but models including motorized and non‐motorized human activity were not strongly supported. Wolves occurred infrequently at sites with high densities of well sites and cutblocks, except when elk or mule deer were frequently detected. Our results suggest that wolves risk using industrial block features when prey occur frequently to increase predation opportunities, but otherwise avoid them due to risk of human encounters. Effective management of wolves in anthropogenically altered landscapes thus requires the simultaneous consideration of industrial block features and populations of elk and mule deer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Using molecular techniques, we assessed the current situation of genetic structure and gene flow among different red deer groups living in the southern part of the Greater Khingan Mountains, the main distribution area of red deer in China. The result showed that the overall genetic diversity of red deer in the study area was intermediate. Significant genetic differentiation was observed, and a significant correlation was found between landscape variables and genetic differentiation, especially roads, altitude, and settlements, which were considered the main factors affecting the gene flow of red deer in this region. The research suggested that we should pay more attention to artificial landscapes and the supervision of human activities, and the distribution of human-made landscapes should avoid crossing the main habitats of red deer as much as possible. Red deer (Cervus canadensis xanthopygus) living in the north of China are restricted and threatened due to human activities and the changes in the natural environment, which influence the dispersal and effective gene flow between different groups of red deer. Effective gene flow plays an important role in maintaining genetic diversity and structure and ensuring population health. In order to evaluate the genetic diversity level and understand the gene flow between different red deer groups, 231 fresh fecal samples were collected from the southern part of the Greater Khingan Mountains, China. A microsatellite marker was used for genetic analysis. The results showed that the genetic diversity of red deer was intermediate in this region. Significant genetic differentiation among different groups was found in the main distribution area (p < 0.01) using F-statistics and the program STRUCTURE. Different degrees of gene flow existed in red deer groups, and the roads (importance = 40.9), elevation (importance = 38.6), and settlements (importance = 14.1) exerted main effects on gene flow between red deer groups. Human-made factors should be noticed and strictly supervised in this region to avoid excessive disturbance to the normal movement of the red deer. Further conservation and management of red deer should reduce the intensity of vehicular traffic in the concentrated distribution areas of red deer, especially during the heat season. This research helps us better understand the genetic level and health status of red deer in the southern part of the Greater Khingan Mountains and provides theoretical references for protecting and restoring the red deer populations in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most animals need to spend time being vigilant for predators, at the expense of other activities such as foraging. Group‐living animals can benefit from the shared vigilance effort of other group members, with individuals reducing personal vigilance effort as group size increases. Behaviors like active scanning or head lifting are usually used to quantify vigilance but may not be accurate measures of this. We suggest that measuring an animal's blinking rate gives a meaningful measure of vigilance: increased blinking implies reduced vigilance, as the animal cannot detect predators when its eyes are closed. We describe an observational study of a captive population of red deer, where we measured the blinking rates of individual deer from groups of differing sizes (where mean group size ranged between 1 and 42.7 individuals). We demonstrate that as group size increases in red deer, individuals increase their blink rate, confirming the prediction that vigilance should decrease. Blinking is a simple non‐invasive measure and offers a useful metric for assessing the welfare of animals experiencing an increase in perceived predation risk or other stressors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three different farms reported cases of angular limb deformities (ALD) in rising 2-year-old velvet, mostly red deer (Cervus elaphus), stags with the earliest recorded cases occurring in 2010. Farm 1 reported a prevalence of 10–35%, farm 2, 5–11.5%, and farm 3, 2–5%. Farms 1, 2, and 3 are located in South Canterbury, northern Southland, and the Waikato, respectively. Affected animals developed ALD, with predominantly varus forelimb (bowed) deformities. On all farms serum calcium and phosphorus concentrations in affected animals were normal. Serum and liver copper concentrations were variable across the period of the study and between farms. Although some measurements were below the reference ranges, there was no evidence for a statistical association with the prevalence of abnormalities. The distal radius from 25 affected and four control red and red-wapiti (Cervus canadensis) cross deer from Farm 1 in 2010/2011, two affected red deer from Farm 2 in 2016, and one affected red deer from Farm 3 in 2021, were examined. The most consistent lesions were present in the distal radial physis, most commonly the lateral edge. There was mild-to-severe segmental thickening of the physis and, in some animals, physeal cartilage was duplicated with both sections of physis varying in thickness. Microscopically, in severely affected animals there was massive segmental thickening of physeal cartilage which often contained large cystic cavities. The cartilage matrix was eosinophilic and showed a loss of metachromatic staining with toluidine blue. In less severe cases, necrotic physeal vessels were present, consistent with vascular failure. In more chronic cases, there was duplication of the physis, the two layers being separated by a combination of normal trabecular bone and dense fibrous connective tissue. Physeal osteochondrosis. Osteochondrosis has a multifactorial aetiology and we propose that an increased requirement for nutrients for velvet production and increased weight-bearing stress (behaviour and rapid weight gain) may lead to progression of osteochondrosis and ALD in these deer. The involvement of periods of copper deficiency is unclear at this time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reports of neoplasia in deer remain rare (Hill and Staples [7]), despite the conviction that as deer farming became more common, a greater number of pathological processes, including tumours, would be recognised in deer (Pérez I et al i . Skin tumours are among the most common neoplasms reported in red deer ( I Cervus elaphus i ) and are usually papillomavirus-associated dermal fibropapillomas and papillomas (Erdélyi I et al i . Bulletin of the Wildlife Disease Association 3, 102 - 4, 1967. https://doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-3.3.102 6 Garcês A, Pires I, Savini F, Scagliarini A, Gallina L. Cutaneous fibropapilloma in a red deer (Cervus elaphus) associated with Cervus elaphus papillomavirus in Portugal. [Extracted from the article]

Within-population acoustic variation of European red deer Cervus elaphus follows two empirically established common rules: Rule 1: suggesting similar-pitched stag and hind calls because of potential prevalence of natural over sexual selection on call pitch; and Rule 2: predicting lower-pitched calls in adults, because larger vocal folds normally produce lower-pitched calls in mammals. We found that both rules were supported for native Pannonian red deer from Central Europe. All fundamental frequency ( f 0 ) parameter values of hind contact calls (for the exclusion of the beginning f 0 ) were indistinguishable from those of stag rutting roars. These results agree with published data on vocalization of male and female American and Asian wapiti Cervus canadensis. Calls of adults of either sex were lower in frequency than calf calls. These results disagree with data collected from adult and young American wapiti producing same-frequency calls, probably because of a distinctive mechanism of sound production (whistling). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Roads fragment animal populations, vehicles kill and injure animals, and traffic may affect animal behavior. Mitigation efforts (e.g., wildlife underpasses) are constructed to prevent fragmentation and reduce wildlife-vehicle collisions. However, little is known about traffic's proximal effects on wildlife behavior and use of mitigation measures. We quantified the time that elk (Cervus elaphus) and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) allocated to foraging, vigilance, and flight behavior before and after vehicle passage. Both species increased vigilance and flight behaviors and reduced time spent foraging in response to vehicles. Both species were more likely to move through the underpass if they exhibited foraging behavior; we also found a marginally significant trend that animals were less likely to use the underpass after vigilance behavior. Knowledge that vehicle movement influences wildlife behavior underscores the importance of consideration given to road and crossing structure design. Additionally, findings of species-specific response to vehicle passage are important in understanding potential fitness consequences of anthropogenic disturbance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Herbivores use vigilance to reduce predation risk and interact socially, yet it imposes a foraging efficiency cost. As individuals spend more time with their head up being vigilant, time available to search for and ingest food decreases. We explored whether ungulates can strategically modify behaviours to compensate for vigilance costs via increased cropping rate when food searching time was near-zero and bite sizes were small. We compared the proportion of time individuals had their head up to their cropping rate (bites/observation length) in 271 observations of Roosevelt elk (Cervus elaphus roosevelti). Using a linear mixed-effect model, we estimated the head up–cropping rate relationship and found that elk cropping rate was constant across varying lengths of time spent with their head up, indicating no vigilance compensation occurred via increased cropping rate. We discuss settings when cropping rate compensation is expected and other behaviours that might mitigate vigilance costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large predators often are believed to cause declines in hunter harvests of ungulates due to direct competition for prey with hunters. In Alberta, predators of elk (Cervus elaphus), including grizzly bear (Ursus arctos), cougar (Puma concolor), and wolf (Canis lupus), have increased in recent years. We used trend analysis replicated by Wildlife Management Unit (WMU) to examine regional trends in elk harvest and hunter success. Over a 26-yr period, average harvest of elk increased by 5.46% per year for unrestricted bull and by 6.64% per year for limited-quota seasons. Also, over the same time frame, average hunter success increased by 0.2% per year for unrestricted bull and by 0.3% per year for limited-quota seasons, but no trend was detected in hunter effort (P>0.05). Our results show that increasing large-predator populations do not necessarily reduce hunter harvest of elk, and we only found evidence for this in Alberta's mountain WMUs where predation on elk calves has reduced recruitment. Furthermore, data indicate that Alberta's elk harvest management has been sustainable, i.e., hunting has continued while populations of elk have increased throughout most of the province. Wildlife agencies can justify commitments to long-term population monitoring because data allow adaptive management and can inform stakeholders on the status of populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Changbaishan reserve and the forests around it are one of the priority areas for Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) recovery in northeastern China. Previous habitat suitability analyses only took the ecological requirements of tigers into consideration, so this study aims to determine habitat suitability for a tiger-prey community in the region, by analysing ungulate prey availability and habitat suitability for both predator and prey. Three prey species were found, using the snow tacking method: red deer (Cervus canadensis xanthopygus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), and roe deer (Capreolus pygargus). Habitat suitability was evaluated for tigers, red deer, and wild boar, using a multi-criteria evaluation (MCE) process. MCE results showed that (1) habitat suitability is generally low outside the reserve for all three species; (2) suitability values were the lowest for tigers due to high intensity of human impact in the area, with suitable habitat restricted to the centre of the reserve; and (3) red deer and wild boar would find pockets of suitable habitat outside the reserve. A combination of low forest quality and high human impact intensity imposes significant environmental pressure to those ungulates. To recover tiger population in Changbaishan, forest quality and human impacts should be properly managed, which should increase prey availability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present phylogeographic pattern of red deer in Eurasia is not only a result of the contraction of their distribution range into glacial refugia and postglacial expansion, but probably also an effect of replacement of some red deer s.l. mtDNA lineages by others during the last 50 000 years. To better recognize this process, we analysed 501 sequences of mtDNA cytochrome b , including 194 ancient and 75 contemporary samples newly obtained for this study. The inclusion of 161 radiocarbon-dated samples enabled us to study the phylogeny in a temporal context and conduct divergence-time estimation and molecular dating. Depending on methodology, our estimate of divergence between Cervus elaphus and Cervus canadensis varied considerably (370 000 or 1.37 million years BP, respectively). The divergence times of genetic lineages and haplogroups corresponded to large environmental changes associated with stadials and interstadials of the Late Pleistocene. Due to the climatic oscillations, the distribution of C. elaphus and C. canadensis fluctuated in north–south and east–west directions. Some haplotypes dated to pre-Last Glacial Maximum periods were not detected afterwards, representing possibly extinct populations. We indicated with a high probability the presence of red deer sensu lato in south-eastern Europe and western Asia during the Last Glacial Maximum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spatial organization plays prominent roles in disease transmission, genetics, and demography of wildlife populations and is therefore an important consideration not only for wildlife management, but also for inference about populations and processes. We used hierarchical agglomerative clustering of a spatial graph network to partition Wind Cave National Park (WICA) into five regions used by 163 female elk (Cervus elaphus) marked with global positioning system collars during 2005–08 and 2011–13. We grouped elk based on differential use of the five regions, developed a priori models for inter‐group variation in the occurrence of chronic wasting disease (CWD), and used Akaike's information criterion to compare models and stratify regions. Previous descriptions of elk population structure, which have been based on social contact or overlap of individual ranges, have distinguished spatially disjunct population subsets. Constructing hierarchical partitions of the landscape enabled us to also discern and describe overlapping and nested subsets. During 2016–18, apparent park‐wide prevalence of CWD was 0.18 (90% CI = [0.146, 0.182]); however, prevalence within three spatial strata used primarily by different elk ranged from 0.03 ([0.008, 0.074]) to 0.29 ([0.211, 0.375]). In context with published estimates of recruitment, predation, and anthropogenic mortality, such differences in prevalence equate to increasing local abundance of elk in southwestern WICA, stable to declining abundance in the west/northwest, and rapidly declining abundance in the east. Despite the modest size of WICA (11,357 ha), park‐wide averages conflate effects of elk distribution and disease, obscuring spatial patterns with profound implications for study and management of elk and CWD. Graph networks have been used widely in ecology to describe such phenomena as social relationships, connectivity of habitat patches, animal movements, and the spread of disease. Extension to partitioning of geographic range is straightforward but entails different considerations. We discuss allocation of sampling effort, construction of an initial partition, specification of a model for graph cohesion, selection of a clustering algorithm, and identification of useful partitions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prescribed fires often stimulate short-term productivity of grasslands that influences use by large, grazing herbivores. But studies examining burning effects on large herbivore population dynamics while simultaneously considering other environmental factors that might also influence population dynamics are lacking. We examined the influences of burned area, precipitation during the growing season, and possible distributional shifts from a nearby public hunt on maximum intrinsic rate of population growth (r max) and environmental carrying capacity (K). We examined the influences of these predictors in a Roosevelt elk (Cervus elaphus roosevelti) population studied across 43 years where abundances ranged from 4 to 322 animals and prescribed fires ranged from 14 to 891 ha of burned area in Redwood National and State Parks, California, USA. The highest count across surveys conducted in a year was our index of elk (females, juveniles, subadult males) abundance. We estimated Ricker type models in a hierarchical, state-space formulation that separated observer error from process variation. We found a slight influence from burned area on both r max and K but a stronger influence from precipitation during the growing season. The lack of a substantial effect from burned area on elk population parameters might be from a variety of factors such as spatial and temporal variation in intensity of prescribed fires and weak density dependence. Nonetheless, one positive benefit to elk population processes was that the patchwork of burning retarded encroachment of woody plants into forage habitat and, thus, maintained a constant area of forage habitat across 43 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scavenging carrion is an important source of nutrition for Wolverines (Gulo gulo), which are facultative scavengers. Other large carnivores, particularly Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), may compete with and exclude Wolverines from carrion or pose a risk of death or injury to Wolverines attempting to consume these resources. We used a video-camera trap to document a Wolverine scavenging an Elk (Cervus elaphus) being actively consumed by a Gray Wolf in Idaho. The Wolverine investigated the kill, ate, scent marked, and removed pieces of the carcass to cache at other sites. Between the 2nd and 3rd visit by the Wolverine, a wolf returns to feed at the kill. These observations establish that Wolverines do not necessarily avoid kills when Gray Wolves are present and that species interactions are more complex than generally thought. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus canadensis) populations have significant economic implications to the cattle industry, as they are a major reservoir for Brucella abortus in the Greater Yellowstone area. Vaccination attempts against intracellular bacterial diseases in elk populations have not been successful due to a negligible adaptive cellular immune response. A lack of genomic resources has impeded attempts to better understand why vaccination does not induce protective immunity. To overcome this limitation, PacBio, Illumina, and Hi-C sequencing with a total of 686-fold coverage was used to assemble the elk genome into 35 pseudomolecules. A robust gene annotation was generated resulting in 18,013 gene models and 33,422 mRNAs. The accuracy of the assembly was assessed using synteny to the red deer and cattle genomes identifying several chromosomal rearrangements, fusions and fissions. Because this genome assembly and annotation provide a foundation for genome-enabled exploration of Cervus species, we demonstrate its utility by exploring the conservation of immune system-related genes. We conclude by comparing cattle immune system-related genes to the elk genome, revealing eight putative gene losses in elk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Established in 1907, Jasper National Park (JNP) comprises 10,880 km2 of mountainous terrain in western Alberta, Canada. Its large mammals have been protected from hunting and trapping, but are subject to accidental collisions with vehicles and trains on the Yellowhead Highway and the Canadian National Railway (CNR) that transect JNP. This paper reviews the park's historical inventory of Elk (Cervus elaphus), Bighorn Sheep (Ovis Canadensis), and Gray Wolves (Canis lupus), and reports on their number killed by vehicles and trains from 1980 to 2018. Elk population estimates declined from 1000 in 1975 to 318 in 2018. An aerial survey of Bighorn Sheep flown in 2018 over all of JNPs sheep range recorded a decline of 58–62% compared to 1987. In the lower main valley, discrete bands of rams and ewes declined on 2 traditional winter ranges. The road and rail fatalities of Elk and sheep were superimposed on predation. In the late 1970s, wolves were estimated at 160, but reached an undetermined low in 2018 following year-round trapping on JNPs boundaries and accidental fatalities on the park's roads and railways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Size dimorphic ungulates often display ecological differences attributed to body size. We predicted that male elk should select foraging sites containing more abundant forage than sites selected by smaller-bodied female and juvenile elk. To test this prediction, we estimated forage biomass at bite stations grazed by juvenile, adult female, and adult male Roosevelt Elk (Cervus elaphus roosevelti). Moreover, we examined the potential confounding influences of number of bites taken and group size on forage biomass at bite stations. We measured forage biomass associated with focal observations of 310 grazing elk (55 juveniles, 145 females, 110 males) in 2 meadow complexes in Redwood National and State Parks, California, 2008–2011. Analyzing a linear mixed effects model, our fixed effects showed that forage biomass at bite stations grazed by males tended to be greater than that of bite stations grazed by juveniles and females. When we considered the additional uncertainty from random effects, there was considerable overlap in 95% confidence intervals of estimated forage biomass at bite stations grazed by juvenile, female, and male elk. Therefore, the positive correlation between age-sex classes and forage biomass was weak. There also was no influence from number of bites taken at bite stations or group size on forage biomass at bite stations. When forage was limited, body size had a weak influence at bite stations grazed by juvenile, adult female, and adult male Roosevelt Elk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Surface mining is the most prevalent form of coal extraction in North America. Reclamation aims to transform former surface mines into self‐sustaining ecosystems that support uses similar to predevelopment conditions. Success of reclamation often is determined by assessing the re‐establishment of landscape structure and vegetation communities. However, there is increasing interest in evaluating reclamation success in the context of higher trophic levels. We evaluated response to mining and reclamation by sympatric bighorn sheep (Ovis canadanesis), elk (Cervus elaphus), and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) on reclaimed coal mines in west‐central Alberta. We used direct ground counts on a fixed survey route to obtain data on abundance and distribution of ungulates during 2004 to 2017. We created a grid of 200 × 200 m grid cells and assigned each group of ungulates to a grid cell. We assigned landscape and topographic features to these grid cells to represent changes due to mining and reclamation. We estimated resource selection functions for bighorn sheep, elk, and mule deer showing how their use of reclaimed features and landscapes increased access to quality forage and decreased predation risk. Ungulates also responded to mining and reclamation in ways that we did not anticipate, e.g. sheep and elk often selected areas near haul roads. Understanding spatial relationships between reclamation prescriptions and higher trophic levels is important when designing "bottom up" reclamation to restore ecological functions including recruitment of wildlife. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Incorporating host behavioral variation into epidemiological models is important for predicting host-pathogen dynamics. Animals living at high densities or with many strong social connections are predicted to have greater risk of acquiring pathogens. Using social network analysis, we tested the hypothesis that variation in the strength of social connections would influence simulated elk (Cervus canadensis) pathogen dynamics. We quantified fine-scale social connections for captive elk at three experimentally manipulated densities and wild elk at two natural densities. We applied susceptible-infected epidemiological models to networks to infer the relationship between fine-scale host sociality and simulated pathogen dynamics. Networks were filtered based on four association thresholds to determine how variation in the strength of social connections influenced pathogen dynamics. Our simulations suggest that social behavior interacts with population density to predict pathogen dynamics, but this effect was sex-specific. For both males and females at higher density, elk had strong social connections, resulting in higher number of infected individuals. We observed differences in social connections across density, and these results translated to our simulations, which predicted density-dependent pathogen dynamics for captive and wild elk networks. Our results highlight host social behavior as a potential mechanism driving variation in the relationship between population density and pathogen dynamics. Elk are reservoir hosts for numerous emerging infectious diseases, and our models suggest that density-dependent host social behavior could influence pathogen dynamics in elk social networks. Significance statement: Animal population density can influence transmission of parasites and pathogens, but variation in social connections at different densities could impact this relationship. Using social network analysis and epidemiological simulations, we tested the hypothesis that density-dependent variation in social connections would influence pathogen dynamics using captive and free-ranging populations of elk (Cervus elaphus). For all elk groups, simulated number of infected individuals increased with social connectedness. In addition, our simulations suggest that social connectedness interacts with population density to predict number of infected individuals, but this effect was sex-specific. For males and females at high density, elk had strong social connections, resulting in more infected individuals; this relationship was linear for males and non-linear for females. Taken together, our results suggest fine-scale measures of social behavior vary with population density, a result which could have implications for pathogen dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We conducted a 2 y study of survival and cause-specific mortality of elk (Cervus elaphus) calves to determine the current status of elk occupying the southwestern region of the Black Hills National Forest, South Dakota and eastern Wyoming. We captured and fit 71 calves ≤10 d of age with expandable radiocollars during summer 2012 (n = 37) and 2013 (n = 34). We used known-fate analysis in Program MARK to estimate summer (15 May–25 Sep.) and annual (12 mo) survival for elk calves. The top model for summer survival was {S1–2wk,3–20wk} indicating mortality during 1–2 wk of age and 3–20 wk of age best explained survival; overall probability of surviving 20 wk was 0.79 (95% CI = 0.68–0.88). For annual (12 mo) survival, model {Sbirthweight} had the lowest AICc value indicating birth weight of elk calves best explained survival as heavier born calves had a higher probability of survival. The overall probability a calf survived to 12 mo of age was 0.75 (95% CI = 0.61–0.84). Cougar (Puma concolor) predation accounted for 81% of mortalities; remaining mortalities were from starvation (6.3%, n = 1) and unknown causes (6.3%, n = 1). Our results document high survival for calves likely due to productive habitats, an ecosystem-specific predator guild, and high alternative prey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The extent to which prey space use actively minimizes predation risk continues to ignite controversy. Methodological reasons that have hindered consensus include inconsistent measurements of predation risk, biased spatiotemporal scales at which responses are measured and lack of robust null expectations.We addressed all three challenges in a comprehensive analysis of the spatiotemporal responses of adult female elk (Cervus elaphus) to the risk of predation by wolves (Canis lupus) during winter in northern Yellowstone, USA.We quantified spatial overlap between the winter home ranges of GPS‐collared elk and three measures of predation risk: the intensity of wolf space use, the distribution of wolf‐killed elk and vegetation openness. We also assessed whether elk varied their use of areas characterized by more or less predation risk across hours of the day, and estimated encounter rates between simultaneous elk and wolf pack trajectories. We determined whether observed values were significantly lower than expected if elk movements were random with reference to predation risk using a null model approach.Although a small proportion of elk did show a tendency to minimize use of open vegetation at specific times of the day, overall we highlight a notable absence of spatiotemporal response by female elk to the risk of predation posed by wolves in northern Yellowstone.Our results suggest that predator–prey interactions may not always result in strong spatiotemporal patterns of avoidance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hunting farms can serve as a source of primary data on the state of natural resources. Taking into account the increasing anthropogenic impact on the environment, it is necessary to constantly monitor the situation with food for ungulates and predators in order to be able to take timely measures to improve the quality of habitat for wild fauna. Populations of wild large animals live in the host landscapes of so reduced that animals population become extremely vulnerable and unstable, signs of crisis can be seen in the data on the number of animals. Lack of natural food is a serious deterrent, especially in difficult times of the year, such as winter and spring. An analysis of the situation with food for a particular species will allow hunting farms to properly plan their feeding and other activities throughout the year in order to maintain a population of certain species on their territory and minimize the migration of species outside the protected areas. The aim of our work was to create a baseline for tracking data on the characteristics of wildlife animals. The research results allow hunting farms to use the data of animal feeding preferences during different seasons of the year for better organization of their biotechnical measures and improvement of feeding conditions for such species as red deer (Cervus elaphus), elk (Cervus canadensis), roe deer (Capreolus pygargus) and bear(Ursus arctos). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present article focuses on artefacts made of antlers with holes drilled for the haft, both those available in physical collections and those known only from archaeological literature. This category of items is held by a number of central and regional museums in Belarus, as well as in private collections. Such 'dispersion' of the items makes their study problematic. Until now, no comprehensive study of antler artefacts with drilled holes from gravel pits located in Smarhon has been conducted. Publications have so far considered only the specimens that are most representative from the point of view of comparative typology. Michal Chernyavskiy and Piotr Kalinovskiy invariably associated tools with drilled holes with the Mesolithic period. However, this group of tools is more diverse and chronologically complicated than previously thought. The authors of the present article propose a new typological scheme for this item category which is part of a pan-European cultural and chronological context based on a complex analysis of antler artefacts with drilled holes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many ecosystems contain sympatric predator species that hunt in different places and times. We tested whether this provides vacant hunting domains, places and times where and when predators are least active, that prey use to minimize threats from multiple predators simultaneously. We measured how northern Yellowstone elk (Cervus elaphus) responded to wolves (Canis lupus) and cougars (Puma concolor), and found that elk selected for areas outside the high‐risk domains of both predators consistent with the vacant domain hypothesis. This enabled elk to avoid one predator without necessarily increasing its exposure to the other. Our results demonstrate how the diel cycle can serve as a key axis of the predator hunting domain that prey exploit to manage predation risk from multiple sources. We argue that a multi‐predator, spatiotemporal framework is vital to understand the causes and consequences of prey spatial response to predation risk in environments with more than one predator. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Successful production of calves is necessary for growth of North American elk (Cervus elaphus Linnaeus 1758) populations, but few studies have evaluated age-related effects on both the conception and survival of a calf to weaning in multiple free-ranging populations. Conception and survival of calves to weaning were both affected by maternal age, with old (age 9 and older) females showing reproductive senescence as compared to prime-aged (ages 2–8) females despite achieving similar or greater size and condition. Reproductive senescence in our free-ranging populations ultimately resulted in old females weaning fewer calves (0.42 calves/female) than did prime-aged females (0.64 calves/female). Other factors, especially maternal size, also influenced conception and survival to weaning, and these interacted with age in a consistent manner, i.e. larger females or females in better condition were more likely to conceive and successfully wean calves within each age class. Female age structure receives less consideration in ungulate management than does male age structure, despite demonstrated impacts on population productivity of multiple species because of reproductive senescence. Because of the large proportion of individuals in senesced age classes in elk populations, low productivity in populations may simply reflect female age structure, rather than other frequently hypothesized factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) that affects members of the Cervidae family, including deer (Odocoileus spp.), elk (Cervus Canadensis spp.), and moose (Alces alces spp.). While CWD is a neurodegenerative disease, lymphoid accumulation of the abnormal isoform of the prion protein (PrPSc) is detectable early in the course of infection. It has been shown that a large portion of the PrPSc lymphoid accumulation in infected mule deer takes place on the surface of follicular dendritic cells (FDCs). In mice, FDC expression of PrPC has been shown to be essential for PrPSc accumulation. FDCs have been shown to normally express high levels of PrPC in mice and humans but this has not been examined in natural hosts for CWD. We used double immunofluorescent labeling and confocal microscopy to determine the PrPC expression characteristics of B and T lymphocytes as well as FDCs in palatine tonsils of CWD-negative mule deer and elk. We detected substantial PrPC colocalization with all cellular phenotypic markers used in this study, not just with FDC phenotypic markers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wolf (Canis lupus) diets and potential effects on prey have been a prominent subject of interest to wildlife researchers and managers since reintroduction into Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, USA, in 1995 and 1996. Post‐reintroduction, wolves expanded south and recolonized areas in the southern Yellowstone ecosystem. Elk (Cervus elaphus) in this area are supplementally fed during winter (Dec–Mar) at state‐managed feedgrounds, resulting in high‐density congregations of elk. From December to March 2000–2007, we determined the winter predation patterns of wolves by examining the remains of 289 wolf kills on 3 state‐managed feedgrounds and adjacent winter range near Jackson, Wyoming. During winters 2002–2005, we also monitored the movements of radio‐collared elk on feedgrounds to describe the response of elk to the presence of wolf kills. Thirty‐seven percent (n = 106) of kills were located on elk feedgrounds where elk composition included 49% calves, 42% adult females, 5% adult males, and 5% unknown. Sixty‐three percent (n = 183) of kills were located on winter range adjacent to feedgrounds and prey species consisted of 90% elk (38% calves, 35% adult females, 24% adult males, 2% unknown), 9% moose (Alces alces; 13% calves, 69% adult females, 6% adult males, 1% unknown), 1% mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus; 1 fawn, 1 adult female), and 0.5% adult female bison (Bison bison). Mean age of elk killed on feedgrounds was 4.2 years (range = 0–20) and 4.6 years (range = 0–23) on winter range. Calves were selected more than available in most years with female elk killed less than expected. Adult males were killed more than expected in 2005–2007. Eighty‐eight percent (n = 198) of the time elk remained on the feedground even when wolves made a kill. Less commonly, elk left the feedground, gathered in larger herds on adjacent feedgrounds absent of wolves, and returned within a few days (6%, n = 13) or left the feedground for another feedground and did not return for the rest of the winter (6%; n = 14). Elk were less likely to leave feedgrounds in the presence of a wolf kill when there were more elk on that feedground. Elk left feedgrounds with greater topography and tree cover (Alkali and Fish Creek) and gathered on the flat, open feedgrounds (Patrol Cabin) more frequently than they left flat, open feedgrounds for feedgrounds with greater topography and tree cover. Our results indicate wolves in our study area primarily preyed on elk and exhibited a strong preference for elk calves. High‐density concentrations of elk on feedgrounds will continue to be an attractant for wolves. Although elk leave feedgrounds for reasons other than wolf presence, any displacement of elk from feedgrounds due to wolves will be temporary. State managers have the ability to alter management strategies (e.g., increasing wolf harvest, phasing out elk feeding, increasing the intensity of elk feeding) in an effort to affect predator‐prey relationships. © 2019 The Wildlife Society. We determined the winter diets of wolves near Jackson, Wyoming on 3 elk feedgrounds and adjacent winter range. We also monitored the movements of elk on feedgrounds in response of elk to the presence of wolf kills. Results indicated a preference for elk calves and when there were more elk on the feedground, elk were less likely leave the feedground when wolves made a kill. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildlife managers needed to understand coyote (Canis latrans) ecology in order to develop management plans on the nascent Valles Caldera National Preserve in northern New Mexico. Managers concerned about low elk (Cervus elaphus) recruitment had observed an increase in sightings of coyotes and observations of coyote predation on elk calves. Our objective was to identify and quantify coyote diet, and assess the temporal variation in coyote diet on the Valles Caldera National Preserve, particularly as related to elk calf consumption. We examined coyote food habits using 1,385 scats analyzed monthly from May 2005 to November 2008. The most frequent taxa were rodents (predominantly voles from the genus Microtus, and northern pocket gophers, Thomomys talpoides), elk, insects from the orders Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets) and Coleoptera (beetles), mountain cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus nuttallii), and plant material (mainly grass). We detected rodent and elk in scats during all months of the study and were each present in 54% of scats overall. We identified elk remains in 43% of spring scats, 72% of winter scats, and 56% of fall scats. During summers, we could distinguish calf from adult elk hair: 8% of summer the scats contained adult elk hair and 39% contained calf elk hair. The frequency of prey items varied significantly over most seasons and years, with notable exceptions being that elk did not vary among summers and winters, and rabbits were a consistent diet item through all seasons. The high frequency of elk in the coyote diet bears further study on the density of elk calves, the vulnerability of elk to predation, the nutritional impacts from the quality of forage available to elk, and the role of hunting and other mammalian predators in providing carcasses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. Ecologists use classifications of individuals in categories to understand composition of populations and communities. These categories might be defined by demographics, functional traits, or species. Assignment of categories is often imperfect, but frequently treated as observations without error. When individuals are observed but not classified, these “partial” observations must be modified to include the missing data mechanism to avoid spurious inference. 2. We developed two hierarchical Bayesian models to overcome the assumption of perfect assignment to mutually exclusive categories in the multinomial distribution of categorical counts, when classifications are missing. These models incorporate auxiliary information to adjust the posterior distributions of the proportions of membership in categories. In one model, we use an empirical Bayes approach, where a subset of data from one year serves as a prior for the missing data the next. In the other approach, we use a small random sample of data within a year to inform the distribution of the missing data. 3. We performed a simulation to show the bias that occurs when partial observations were ignored and demonstrated the altered inference for the estimation of demographic ratios. We applied our models to demographic classifications of elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni) to demonstrate improved inference for the proportions of sex and stage classes. 4. We developed multiple modeling approaches using a generalizable nested multinomial structure to account for partially observed data that were missing not at random for classification counts. Accounting for classification uncertainty is important to accurately understand the composition of populations and communities in ecological studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To better understand train collision mortality of moose (Alces alces) and elk (Cervus elaphus) in Ontario, we measured collisions along a 20 km segment of railway using post-winter railbed surveys (11 consecutive years), remote cameras, and radio-telemetered elk. We used these data to estimate provincial moose-train collision rates by extrapolating collision rates, moose density, and amount of high use railway per Wildlife Management Unit (WMU). The annual collision rate varied from 0 to 7 moose and 2 to 22 elk on the 20 km section of railway; the combined collision rate of moose and elk was highest in winters with above average snowfall. The extrapolated collision rates of moose indicated that ~1/3 of WMUs had a rate > 0.08 moose/km high use railway/yr; ~2/3 had a rate > 0.04. A conservative estimate of annual mortality was ~265 moose province-wide. Given that railway expansion is predicted globally, and specifically in Ontario, planning should include potential mitigation strategies that minimize ungulate-train collisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A novel foot disease in free-ranging elk (Cervus elaphus) in southwestern Washington State emerged in 2008 and spread throughout the region. Initial studies showed adult elk had chronic hoof overgrowth, sole ulcers, and sloughed hoof capsules, but no cause was determined. To identify possible causes and characterize the earliest lesions, 9-, 7-, and 3-month-old elk were collected. Nine-month-old elk had sole ulcers (3/9 elk) and sloughed/overgrown hoof capsules (4/9 elk) similar to adults. Histologically, lesions consisted of coronary, heel bulb, and interdigital ulcers with suppurative inflammation, epithelial hyperplasia, deeply invasive spirochetes, and underrunning of the hoof capsule and heel-sole junction. Spirochetes were identified as Treponema via immunohistochemistry and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Seven-month-old elk had similar underrunning foot ulcers (6/8 elk) with Treponema identified in all lesions but no chronic overgrowth or sloughed hoof capsules. Three-month-old calves had superficial coronary erosions with no inflammation or identifiable spirochetes (3/5 elk) but were culture/PCR positive for Treponema, suggesting possible early lesions. Lesions from 9- and 7-month-old elk included aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, many of which are associated with infectious foot disease in livestock. Antibody enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay of 7- and 3-month-old elk from the enzootic region showed a trend toward increased Treponema antibody titers compared to normal control elk from outside the region, further supporting the significance of Treponema in the pathogenesis of foot disease. Treponeme-associated hoof disease (TAHD) in elk, a debilitating and progressive condition, shares similarities to bovine digital dermatitis and contagious ovine digital dermatitis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The reintroduction of gray wolves (Canis lupus) to Yellowstone National Park is the most celebrated ecological experiment in history. As predicted by population models, the rapid recovery of a wolf population caused both temporal and spatial variability in wolf–ungulate interactions that likewise generated temporal and spatial variation in the expression of trophic cascades. This has amplified spatial variation in vegetation in Yellowstone, particularly with willow (Salix spp.) and cottonwood (Populus spp.) in riparian areas, with associated changes in food webs. Increasing influences of grizzly bears (Ursus arctos), cougars (Puma concolor), and bison (Bison bison) are making what initially was predominantly an elk–wolf interaction into an increasingly complex system. Outside Yellowstone, however, humans have a dominant influence in western North America that overwhelms trophic cascades resulting in what appear to be bottom-up influences on community structure and function. Complex and unexpected ecosystem responses to wolf recovery in Yellowstone reinforce the value of national parks and other protected areas as ecological baseline reserves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Each spring, migratory herbivores around the world track or ‘surf’ green waves of newly emergent vegetation to distant summer or wet‐season ranges. This foraging tactic may help explain the great abundance of migratory herbivores on many seasonal landscapes. However, the underlying fitness benefits of this life‐history strategy remain poorly understood. A fundamental prediction of the green‐wave hypothesis is that migratory herbivores obtain fitness benefits from surfing waves of newly emergent vegetation more closely than their resident counterparts. Here we evaluate whether this behavior increases body‐fat levels – a critically important correlate of reproduction and survival for most ungulates – in elk Cervus elaphus of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Using satellite imagery and GPS tracking data, we found evidence that migrants (n = 23) indeed surfed the green wave, occupying sites 12.7 days closer to peak green‐up than residents (n = 16). Importantly, individual variation in surfing may help account for up to 6 kg of variation in autumn body‐fat levels. Our findings point to a pathway for anthropogenic changes to the green wave (e.g. climate change) or migrants’ ability to surf it (e.g. development) to impact migratory populations. To explore this possibility, we evaluated potential population‐level consequences of constrained surfing with a heuristic model. If green‐wave surfing deteriorates by 5–15 days from observed, our model predicts up to a 20% decrease in pregnancy rates, a 2.5% decrease in population growth, and a 30% decrease in abundance over 50 years. By linking green‐wave surfing to fitness and illustrating potential effects on population growth, our study provides new insights into the evolution of migratory behavior and the prospects for the persistence of migratory ungulate populations in a changing world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reports antler remains from the Late Paleolithic site of Climăuţi II (Republic of Moldova) confirming the presence of wapiti Cervus canadensis in the Late Pleistocene of Western Eurasia. The occurrence of wapiti in the East Carpathian area by 20 ky BP coincides with the local extinction of Megaloceros giganteus, Crocuta spelaea, and Ursus spelaeus, and substitution of local forest reindeer with grazing tundra-steppe Rangifer tarandus constantini. We here provide an overview of paleontological data and opinions on the presence of Cervus canadensis in Europe, a discussion on the taxonomic status and systematic position of the extinct deer Cervus elaphus palmidactyloceros, and propose a dispersal model for wapiti in Europe during the Late Pleistocene. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Whereas low-frequency bellows (below 200 Hz) have been investigated in detail in both male and female domestic cattle (Bos taurus), male high-frequency bugle calls (over 800 Hz) have not been described so far in any large bovid species. In this study, high-frequency bugles and low-frequency bellows were recorded from three crossbred free-ranging domestic cattle bulls and analysed spectrographically. The maximum fundamental frequency of bellows was 113.6 Hz, whereas the maximum fundamental frequency of bugles was 958.4 Hz, ranging from 801 to 1125 Hz in different males. These amazingly high fundamental frequencies of bull bugles are comparable with those reported for Siberian wapitiCervus elaphus sibiricus, but lower than reported values for some subspecies of North American wapitiCervus canadensis. The similarity with both Siberian and North American wapiti was also observed in the production of bull biphonic bugles with two fundamental frequencies: the low and the high one. We suggest that bugles of domestic cattle bulls provide an excellent model for comparative research with cervid bugles concerning the mechanism of vocal production and the underlying anatomical and behavioural adaptations. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

We present an elk (Cervus elaphus) habitat management approach to guide timber harvest on managed forestlands. Forest managers consider many constraints when selecting stands to cut, but we suggest additional consideration for elk habitat. The Muckleshoot Indian Tribe's 93,000-ac Tomanamus Forest in western Washington is managed as a working forest, with the challenges of providing income along with ensuring sustainable plant and animal resources relied on by tribal members. We partition the Forest into smaller Elk Management Areas (EMA) and seasonal ranges related to distinct elk groups. Within each EMA, we calculate an Elk Forage Index (EFI) that uses canopy cover and hardwood variables to predict biomass and dietary digestible energy to meet yearly adult cow elk nutritional needs. We propose EFI targets within EMAs that can be used as a variable in a decision model to guide forest planning and evaluate alternative management options that include elk. Management and Policy Implications Our EFI approach is intended as one of many variables to guide harvest management for the Tribe's 100-year forest plan. Timber harvest patterns often produce periods of surplus and deficits in big game forage needs. The spatial distribution of big game habitat resources is often clumped, a pattern created by historical harvest patterns that were based on ease of access and stand age. EFI integrates curvilinear relationships among forest cover, hardwoods, and forest zone into an index that can be used to assess the nutritional value of an area to elk, and help managers evaluate the effects of timber harvests. A goal is to reduce fluctuations in forage resources to generate a managed landscape that can support stable elk numbers. We partition the Tribe's forest into analysis areas based on known elk movements and distribution, and then use the EFI to inform the redistribution of clearcuts on the Forest. The EFI can be among many constraints in a decision model to meet owner objectives. Treatments to improve elk nutrition and increase EFI include modification of overhead canopy such as clearcutting or thinning or promoting diverse hardwood stands. Managers have the flexibility to diversify stand arrangement based on other harvest and management goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In animal behaviour, there is a dichotomy between innate behaviours (e.g., temperament or personality traits) versus those behaviours shaped by learning. Innate personality traits are supposedly less evident in animals when confounded by learning acquired with experience through time. Learning might play a key role in the development and adoption of successful anti-predator strategies, and the related adaptation has the potential to make animals that are more experienced less vulnerable to predation. We carried out a study in a system involving a large herbivorous mammal, female elk, Cervus elaphus, and their primary predator, i.e., human hunters. Using fine-scale satellite telemetry relocations, we tested whether differences in behaviour depending on age were due solely to selection pressure imposed by human hunters, meaning that females that were more cautious were more likely to survive and become older. Or whether learning also was involved, meaning that females adjusted their behaviour as they aged. Our results indicated that both human selection and learning contributed to the adoption of more cautious behavioural strategies in older females. Whereas human selection of behavioural traits has been shown in our previous research, we here provide evidence of additive learning processes being responsible for shaping the behaviour of individuals in this population. Female elk are indeed almost invulnerable to human hunters when older than 9–10 y.o., confirming that experience contributes to their survival. Female elk monitored in our study showed individually changing behaviours and clear adaptation as they aged, such as reduced movement rates (decreased likelihood of encountering human hunters), and increased use of secure areas (forest and steeper terrain), especially when close to roads. We also found that elk adjusted behaviours depending on the type of threat (bow and arrow vs. rifle hunters). This fine-tuning by elk to avoid hunters, rather than just becoming more cautious during the hunting season, highlights the behavioural plasticity of this species. Selection on behavioural traits and/or behavioural shifts via learning are an important but often-ignored consequence of human exploitation of wild animals. Such information is a critical component of the effects of human exploitation of wildlife populations with implications for improving their management and conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding population structure and resource selection is essential for wildlife management and conservation. We assessed the population structure of elk ( Cervus elaphus L.,1758) in central Ontario. We used fuzzy and hierarchical cluster analyses to elucidate elk population structure based on spatial data collected from 41 radio-collared elk. We assessed space use between core and satellite subpopulations with the minimum convex polygon (MCP) and fixed kernel methods. Both fuzzy and hard clustering indicated that elk in this part of central Ontario occur in a metapopulation that includes five subpopulations. The largest cluster consisted of a core group containing 22 radio-collared elk located in Burwash, with several satellite subpopulations spread along a 50 km long north-south axis and a small subpopulation to the west located in Worthington. Survival rates among subpopulations were similar, ranging from 0.71 to 0.83, and anthropogenic causes of mortality were predominant only in the Burwash subpopulation. Space use and density of elk differed between core and satellite subpopulations. Understanding population structure is important to develop appropriate management plans. Our results support the conclusion that metapopulation structure can be reliably assessed using spatial data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Red deer (Cervus elaphus/hanglu/canadensis) are a group of closely-related species that survived through the Last Glacial period in Eurasia and expanded into North America. The evolutionary modes of red deer in Europe through glacial and interglacial cycles have been established relatively well based on both modern and ancient genomes, while the evolutionary and migratory history of red deer in Asia are not so clear. Northern China, as the southern border of their current distribution, is a significant area for exploring the evolution of wapitoids (Cervus canadensis). Here, we constructed six mitochondrial genomes (lengths of 13,282–16,306 bp) from Late Pleistocene fossil cervid materials in Northeastern China, and four modern complete mitochondrial DNA sequences (16,798–16943 bp) from Northern China. Phylogenetic analyses suggest four clades in wapitoids, with our new individuals clustered into three out of the four clades. BEAST analysis indicates that the divergence between elaphoids (including Cervus elaphus and Cervus hanglu) and the complex of 'wapitoids + sika deer (Cervus nippon)' occurred at approximately 1.37 million years ago (Ma, 95%Cl: 1.64–1.15 Ma). Bayesian skyline plots (BSPs) show that the effective maternal population size of wapitoids had a slight and stable expansion between Marine isotope stages (MIS) 7–3, and then shrank from the beginning of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Combined with the divergence dates, population dynamics, and fossil findings in Northern China, we infer that after wapitoids migrated eastward from Central Asia to Northeastern Asia, they had multiple migrations southward into Northern China. The current distribution of wapitoids in Northern China was likely shaped by these migrations as well as habitat fragmentation. Meanwhile, the radiocarbon dates of ancient individuals indicate that the Northeast China Plain, located at the same latitude as European refugia, may have provided a refugium for megafaunal species such as red deer to survive the LGM. • First combined sampling of both ancient and extant mitogenomes of wapitoids in China. • Demonstrating habitat fragmentation or multiple migratory events of wapitoids in Northern China. • Indicating a possible refuge for megafauna species in Northeastern China in LGM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Red deer (Cervus elaphus) is one of the species that is rather wide spread and survived across Europe over the Holocene. The analyses of carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes in bone collagen of ungulate remains have been applied in paleoecological studies as environmental and dietary indicators. In this study we present the carbon and nitrogen stable isotope compositions of previously radiocarbon-dated red deer bone samples (N = 68) found in Central, Southern and Eastern Europe and Asia and aligned to one of two species: European red deer (Cervus elaphus) and wapiti (Cervus canadensis). We showed that the values of carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios of European red deer and wapiti overlapped. Among all analysed independent factors (determined for the locality and time period relevant for each of the analysed samples), the variability of δ 13C values in European red deer dated to the Holocene is best explained by forest cover and mean July temperature, and variability of δ 15N values by the mean July temperature, annual precipitation and altitude. Additionally, combining the results of the present study with isotopic data on European red deer collected from published sources, we revealed that the values of δ 13C and of δ 15N in C. elaphus bones changed according to environmental oscillations that took place in Europe over the last 50 000 years. We concluded that red deer shifted their feeding habitats in relation to changing environmental conditions, for example, forest expansion during the climate warming, and in the mid to later Holocene in response to deforestation caused by human activity and the spread of agriculture. We also found out that red deer reacted in varied ways to changing local conditions in different regions of Europe. Modern individuals of C. elaphus had the lowest δ 13C values among all analysed specimens, so they probably inhabited the most densely forested areas in comparison to other European red deer populations during the last 50 000 years. • δ 13C and δ 15N values of ancient red deer and wapiti bones have been analysed. • We showed that δ 13C and δ 15N in deer fluctuated with environmental changes in Europe. • The values of δ 13C and δ 15N of red deer and wapiti overlapped. • Forest cover and July temperature influenced δ 13C values within Holocene deer bones. • Temperature, precipitation and altitude shaped δ 15N values within Holocene deer bones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding how habitat and nutritional condition affect ungulate populations is necessary for informing management, particularly in areas experiencing carnivore recovery and declining ungulate population trends. Variations in forage species availability, plant phenological stage, and the abundance of forage make it challenging to understand landscape-level effects of nutrition on ungulates. We developed an integrated spatial modeling approach to estimate landscape-level elk ( Cervus elaphus) nutritional resources in two adjacent study areas that differed in coarse measures of habitat quality and related the consequences of differences in nutritional resources to elk body condition and pregnancy rates. We found no support for differences in dry matter digestibility between plant samples or in phenological stage based on ground sampling plots in the two study areas. Our index of nutritional resources, measured as digestible forage biomass, varied among land cover types and between study areas. We found that altered plant composition following fires was the biggest driver of differences in nutritional resources, suggesting that maintaining a mosaic of fire history and distribution will likely benefit ungulate populations. Study area, lactation status, and year affected fall body fat of adult female elk. Elk in the study area exposed to lower summer range nutritional resources had lower nutritional condition entering winter. These differences in nutritional condition resulted in differences in pregnancy rate, with average pregnancy rates of 89% for elk exposed to higher nutritional resources and 72% for elk exposed to lower nutritional resources. Summer range nutritional resources have the potential to limit elk pregnancy rate and calf production, and these nutritional limitations may predispose elk to be more sensitive to the effects of harvest or predation. Wildlife managers should identify ungulate populations that are nutritionally limited and recognize that these populations may be more impacted by recovering carnivores or harvest than populations inhabiting more productive summer habitats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]