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Earth climate and environments have undergone changes in the past decades and continue to change even faster, needing continuous and more advanced studies to understand and predict its consequences. Arctic environment, more specific, Arctic sea-ice, plays a great role when understanding how climate change is affecting the Earth. L-band radiometry is a remote sensing technique that has mainly been used for scientific data retrieval for the past decades. It is known that L-band radiometry can retrieve sea-ice parameters and contribute to the Arctic environment study. In this degree thesis, data from Ariel, a light L-band radiometer from Balamis, will be processed and analysed after its performance in the MOSAiC measurement campaign, a campaign that was conducted from October 2019 to October 2020, with the objective of studying the Arctic environment with in situ measurements for over a year. El planeta Tierra ha sufrido cambios en sus ecosistemas durante las últimas décadas, y sigue experimentándolos cada vez más severos y a mayor velocidad, requiriendo un estudio continuado y exhaustivo para comprender y predecir sus posibles consecuencias. El clima polar ártico, en especial la banquisa o hielo marino, juegan un papel importante para entender realmente como el cambio climático afecta nuestro planeta. La radiometría en banda-L es una técnica de teledetección usada principalmente para estudios científicos durante las últimas décadas. La radiometría en banda-L puede estimar parámetros propios del hielo marino y así contribuir al estudio del clima polar ártico. En este trabajo final de grado, datos de Ariel, un radiómetro ligero de la empresa Balamis, tomados durante la campaña de medidas MOSAiC, serán procesados y analizados. MOSAiC fue realizada durante octubre de 2019 y octubre de 2020, con el objetivo de estudiar el clima polar ártico con medidas in situ durante un año entero. El planeta Terra ha patit canvis en els seus ecosistemes durant les últimes dècades, i continua experimentant canvis, cada cop més ràpids i severs, requerint un estudi continuat i profund per entendre i predir les seves conseqüències. El clima polar àrtic, en especial la banquisa o gel marí, juguen un paper important per entendre realment com el canvi climàtic afecta el nostre planeta. La radiometria en banda-L és una tècnica de teledetecciò utilitzada principalment per estudis científics durant les últimes dècades. La radiometria en banda-L pot estimar paràmetres propis de la banquisa i contribuir a l'estudi del clima polar àrtic. En aquest Treball Final de Grau (TFG), dades de l'Ariel, un radiòmetre lleuger de l'empresa Balamis, presses durant la campanya de mesures MOSAiC, seran processades i analitzades. MOSAiC va ser realitzada durant l'octubre de 2019 i octubre de 2020 amb l'objectiu d'estudiar el clima polar àrtic amb dades in situ durant un any sencer.

Premi HEMAV 2019 al millor TFG ARIEL is an L-band radiometer adapted from Earth Observation satellite technology for use in terrestrial, near to ground surveys of moisture. The key technical benefits are compact size, lightweight, mobility and high pixel density (up to 1m2). This project demonstrates the capability of high spatial and temporal resolution L-Band radiometry to produce detailed soil moisture contour maps within a 1 km2 area. The study was performed prior, during and after 12 mm of rainfall to determine the soil surface absorption and adsorption behaviour in relation to surface moisture. The radiometer was equipped with photodiodes to enable the normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) data to be extracted concurrently. Hence this is a very near ground, high resolution and high precision study of soil moisture derived from L-band emissivity. The project is focused on the technology application and production of useful products in the form of moisture contour maps and vegetation detection. The radiometer functioned admirably during the consecutive test campaigns and in conditions that varied from direct sun to rain and mud. Patterns of soil moisture over time and within specific sub-areas of the field are identified and quantified. The intra-field differences appear to primarily be related to soil type and soil surface characteristics which were qualitatively assessed in this study as quantified approaches are available in empirical and theoretical studies. Average field moistures are measured daily and differentiation is made between soil types within the field. The effect of dry and moist surface emissivity on retrieved moisture is noted, as is the effect of vegetation on soil surface emissivity with the aid of the vegetation index. Comparisons are drawn to the highest resolution satellite imagery (30 m spatial, 3 day temporal) and highlight the limitations and richness of local data that is missed in relation to local soil moisture surface absorption patterns during rainfall. The radiometer is shown to achieve very high resolution and precision that is not possible from satellite or even light aircraft. Furthermore, it is shown to be able to study ground conditions when they are occluded from satellite and hence the moisture profile maps presented are unique in their detail. Award-winning

Camps, Adriano ... et al.-- Special volume: Planet Ocean. Scientia Marina 80(Suppl.1) 2016.-- 14 pages, 20 figures, [EN] This article summarizes some of the activities in which Jordi Font, research professor and head of the Department of Physical and Technological Oceanography, Institut de Ciències del Mar (CSIC, Spanish National Research Council) in Barcelona, has been involved as co-Principal Investigator for Ocean Salinity of the European Space Agency Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) Earth Explorer Mission from the perspective of the Remote Sensing Lab at the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya. We have probably left out some of his many contributions to salinity remote sensing, but we hope that this review will give an idea of the importance of his work. We focus on the following issues: 1) the new accurate measurements of the sea water dielectric constant, 2) the WISE and EuroSTARRS field experiments that helped to define the geophysical model function relating brightness temperature to sea state, 3) the FROG 2003 field experiment that helped to understand the emission of sea foam, 4) GNSS-R techniques for improving sea surface salinity retrieval, 5) instrument characterization campaigns, and 6) the operational implementation of the Processing Centre of Levels 3 and 4 at the SMOS Barcelona Expert Centre, [ES] Este artículo resume algunas de las actividades en las que Jordi Font, profesor de investigación y jefe del Departamento de Física y Tecnología Oceanográfica, del Institut de Ciències del Mar (CSIC) en Barcelona, ha estado desarrollando como co-Investigador Principal de la parte de la misión SMOS de la ESA, una misión Earth Explorer, desde la perspectiva del Remote Sensing Lab, de la Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya. Seguramente, estamos olvidando algunas de sus muchas contribuciones a la teledetección de la salinidad, pero esperamos que esta revisión dé una idea de la importancia de su trabajo. Este artículo se focaliza en los siguientes puntos: 1) las medidas de alta calidad de la constante dieléctrica del agua marina, 2) las campañas de medidas WISE y EuroSTARRS que ayudaron a la definición del modelo geofísico relacionando la temperatura de brillo con el estado del mar, 3) la campaña de medidas FROG 2003 que ayudó a entender la emisión de la espuma marina 4) presentación de las técnicas de GNSS-R para la mejora de la recuperación de la salinidad superficial 5) campañas para la caracterización del instrumento y 6) la implantación del centro de procesado operacional de niveles 3 y 4 en el SMOS Barcelona Expert Centre, This work has been performed under research grants TEC2005-06863-C02-01/TCM, ESP2005-06823-C05 and ESP2007-65667-C04, AYA2008-05906-C02-01/ESP, AYA2010-22062-C05 and ESP2015-70014-C2-1-R, and EURYI 2004 award

Imaging using lightweight, unmanned airborne vehicles (UAVs) is one of the most rapidly developing fields in remote sensing technology. The new, tunable, Fabry-Perot interferometer-based (FPI) spectral camera, which weighs less than 700 g, makes it possible to collect spectrometric image blocks with stereoscopic overlaps using light-weight UAV platforms. This new technology is highly relevant, because it opens up new possibilities for measuring and monitoring the environment, which is becoming increasingly important for many environmental challenges. Our objectives were to investigate the processing and use of this new type of image data in precision agriculture. We developed the entire processing chain from raw images up to georeferenced reflectance images, digital surface models and biomass estimates. The processing integrates photogrammetric and quantitative remote sensing approaches. We carried out an empirical assessment using FPI spectral imagery collected at an agricultural wheat test site in the summer of 2012. Poor weather conditions during the campaign complicated the data processing, but this is one of the challenges that are faced in operational applications. The results indicated that the camera performed consistently and that the data processing was consistent, as well. During the agricultural experiments, promising results were obtained for biomass estimation when the spectral data was used and when an appropriate radiometric correction was applied to the data. Our results showed that the new FPI technology has a great potential in precision agriculture and indicated many possible future research topics. peerReviewed

The potential of satellite passive microwave sensors to provide quantitative information about near-source volcanic ash cloud parameters is assessed. To this aim, ground-based microwave weather radar and spaceborne microwave radiometer observations are used together with forward-model simulations. The latter are based on 2-D simulations with the numerical plume model Active Tracer High-Resolution Atmospheric Model (ATHAM), in conjunction with the radiative transfer model Satellite Data Simulator Unit (SDSU) that is based on the deltaEddington approximation and includes Mie scattering. The study area is the Icelandic subglacial volcanic region. The analyzed case study is that of the Grímsvötn eruption in May 2011. ATHAM input parameters are adjusted using available ground data, and sensitivity tests are conducted to investigate the observed brightness temperatures and their variance. The tests are based on the variation of environmental conditions like the terrain emissivity, water vapor, and ice in the volcanic plume. Quantitative correlation analysis between ATHAM/SDSU forward-model columnar content simulations and available microwave radiometric brightness temperature measurements, derived from the Special Sensor Microwave Imager/Sounder (SSMIS), are encouraging in terms of both dynamic range and correlation coefficient. The correlation coefficients are found to vary from - 0.37 to -0.63 for SSMIS channels from 91 to 183 \pm 1 GHz, respectively. The larger sensitivity of the brightness temperature at 183 \pm 1 GHz to the columnar content, with respect to other channels, allowed us to consider this channel as the basis for a model-based polynomial relationship of volcanic plume height as a function of the measured SSMIS brightness temperature.

Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) is the first satellite mission capable of measuring sea surface salinity and soil moisture from space. Its novel instrument (the L-band radiometer MIRAS) has required the development of new algorithms to process SMOS data, a challenging task due to many processing issues and the difficulties inherent in a new technology. In the wake of SMOS, a new community of users has grown, requesting new products and applications, and extending the interest in this novel brand of satellite services. This paper reviews the role played by the Barcelona Expert Centre under the direction of Jordi Font, SMOS co-principal investigator. The main scientific activities and achievements and the future directions are discussed, highlighting the importance of the oceanographic applications of the mission., SMOS es la primera misión capaz de medir la salinidad superficial del mar y la humedad del suelo desde el espacio. La novedad del instrumento que SMOS lleva a bordo (MIRAS, un radiómetro interferométrico en dos dimensiones que trabaja en banda L) ha implicado el desarrollo de nuevos algoritmos para el procesado de los datos obtenidos. Esto ha supuesto todo un reto, no sólo tecnológico sino también científico, puesto que ha sido necesario abordar diferentes cuestiones inherentes al uso de una nueva tecnología. A raíz del lanzamiento de SMOS, ha surgido una nueva comunidad de usuarios con la correspondiente demanda de nuevos productos y aplicaciones, y un interés creciente en este tipo de nuevos servicios satelitales. En este artículo, se detallan las funciones desempeñadas por el BEC (Barcelona Expert Centre) en la misión SMOS, bajo la dirección de Jordi Font, investigador principal de la parte de salinidad de la misión. Asimismo, también quedan reflejadas las principales actividades de investigación llevadas a cabo en este centro, los logros conseguidos y las futuras líneas de trabajo, destacando la importancia de las aplicaciones oceanográficas de los datos de SMOS.

Special volume: Planet Ocean. Scientia Marina 80(Suppl.1) 2016.-- 21 pages, 18 figures, 1 table, [EN] Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) is the first satellite mission capable of measuring sea surface salinity and soil moisture from space. Its novel instrument (the L-band radiometer MIRAS) has required the development of new algorithms to process SMOS data, a challenging task due to many processing issues and the difficulties inherent in a new technology. In the wake of SMOS, a new community of users has grown, requesting new products and applications, and extending the interest in this novel brand of satellite services. This paper reviews the role played by the Barcelona Expert Centre under the direction of Jordi Font, SMOS co-principal investigator. The main scientific activities and achievements and the future directions are discussed, highlighting the importance of the oceanographic applications of the mission, [ES] SMOS es la primera misión capaz de medir la salinidad superficial del mar y la humedad del suelo desde el espacio. La novedad del instrumento que SMOS lleva a bordo (MIRAS, un radiómetro interferométrico en dos dimensiones que trabaja en banda L) ha implicado el desarrollo de nuevos algoritmos para el procesado de los datos obtenidos. Esto ha supuesto todo un reto, no sólo tecnológico sino también científico, puesto que ha sido necesario abordar diferentes cuestiones inherentes al uso de una nueva tecnología. A raíz del lanzamiento de SMOS, ha surgido una nueva comunidad de usuarios con la correspondiente demanda de nuevos productos y aplicaciones, y un interés creciente en este tipo de nuevos servicios satelitales. En este artículo, se detallan las funciones desempeñadas por el BEC (Barcelona Expert Centre) en la misión SMOS, bajo la dirección de Jordi Font, investigador principal de la parte de salinidad de la misión. Asimismo, también quedan reflejadas las principales actividades de investigación llevadas a cabo en este centro, los logros conseguidos y las futuras líneas de trabajo, destacando la importancia de las aplicaciones oceanográficas de los datos de SMOS, This work was funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy through the National R+D Plan by means of the MIDAS-7 project AYA2012-39356-C05-03 and previous grants. The validation part of this work was done with the support of the FP7-SPACE E-AIMS project (grant agreement 312642)

Development of an Ultralightweight L-band radiometer for UAV platforms from a previouly developed sensors What has been achieved in this study is the improvement of the previous version of the L-band microwave radiometer ARIEL for its location in a drone. Lo que se ha logrado en este trabajo es mejorar la versión anterior del radiometro de microondas en banda L ARIEL para su emplazamiento en un drone. El que s'ha aconseguit en aquest treball és millorar la versió anterior del radiòmetre de microones en banda L ARIEL pel seu embarcament en un drone.

The European Space Agency's Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) mission has been providing L-band brightness temperature (BT) using its instrument, the Microwave Imaging Radiometer using Aperture Synthesis. In the measurements, the negative effect of radio frequency interference (RFI) is clearly present, deteriorating the quality of geophysical parameter retrieval. Detection and geolocation of RFI sources are essential to remove or at least mitigate the RFI impacts and ultimately improve the performance of parameter retrieval. This paper discusses a new approach to SMOS RFI source detection, based on the MUltiple SIgnal Classification (MUSIC) algorithm. Recently, the feasibility of MUSIC direction-of-arrival estimation has been shown for the RFI source detection of the synthetic aperture interferometric radiometer. This paper refines the MUSIC RFI source detection algorithm and tailors it to the SMOS scenario. To consolidate the RFI source detection procedure, several required steps are devised, including the rank estimation of the covariance matrix, local peak detection and thresholds, and multiple-snapshot processing. The developed method is tested using a number of SMOS visibility samples. In the test results, the MUSIC method shows an improvement on the accuracy and precision of the RFI source geolocation, compared with a simple detection method based on the local peaks of BT images. The MUSIC results especially outperform the SMOS BT image on the spatial resolution

185 p. Las cepas de un viñedo suelen plantarse en zonas con características similares, sin embargo, las uvas producidas en cada cepa difieren en calidad y cantidad. Para lograr los objetivos planteados por un viticultor, como calidad de mosto, cantidad de uva, etc., es recomendable adoptar sistemas que permitan gestionar los métodos de producción. El objetivo de este trabajo fue identificar las variables vitivinícolas adecuadas para hacer un seguimiento continuo de viñedos e implantar un sistema de viticultura de precisión, usando teledetección y sistemas de información geográfica. Para ello se midieron variables relacionadas con la calidad, producción y vigor de las cepas en cuatro viñedos diferentes (Cabernet Sauvignon, Mencía, Merlot y Tempranillo), localizadas en la Denominación de Origen Bierzo, desde el año 2007 al 2012. Además, se estimó el contenido en agua de las hojas mediante espectroradiometría de campo. Los resultados mostraron una mayor variabilidad inter-anual que inter-varietal de las variables de calidad, producción y vigor. El comienzo de los estados fenológicos indicó que cada variedad requiere condiciones climáticas distintas, pero no condicionan la estabilidad de cada variable dentro de la viña. Mencía mostró los mejores valores de calidad y producción mientras que Tempranillo obtuvo los mayores valores de vigor. La delineación de dos zonas de manejo diferenciado para cada viñedo, se realizó mediante interpolación por krigeado ordinario y clasificación cluster (ISODATA), teniendo en cuenta variables de calidad, producción, vigor y suelo de las parcelas. La clasificación más adecuada fue la definida por los sólidos solubles totales, acidez total, índice de polifenoles, pH, peso medio del racimo y longitud del entrenudo. No se lograron mejorar las exactitudes al añadir variables relativas a las características del suelo en las clasificaciones. En el análisis de exactitud de la zonificación se obtuvieron los mejores resultados para la variedad Mencía y los peores para Tempranillo (exactitud global 45,24% y 14,28% respectivamente). Utilizando un espectroradiómetro de campo se estimó el contenido en agua de las hojas de forma rápida, eficaz y no destructiva. Con los datos espectrales tomados a nivel de hoja y de cubierta se calcularon índices de vegetación (VI) y se aplicó continuum removal (CR) en cuatro tramos del espectro. Los modelos ajustados mediante regresión por mínimos cuadrados parciales (PLSR) fueron más exactos que los que utilizaron regresión de mínimos cuadrados ordinaria (OLSR). El modelo más adecuado se obtuvo usando PLSR en el espectro normalizado por CR en el intervalo comprendido entre de 1265 nm a 1668 nm (R2 = 0,675 y RMSE = 0,014). Mediante sistemas de información geográfica se ha logrado establecer una zonificación de los viñedos basada en variables que habitualmente sirven para el seguimiento del desarrollo anual de la vid. La zonificación permitirá aplicar un manejo diferenciado de cada agrupamiento permitiendo optimizar los inputs utilizados en cada zona. El espectroradiómetro de campo ha permitido estimar el contenido en agua foliar a partir de reflectancias, mediante métodos rápidos, fiables y no destructivos. Por tanto, en este trabajo se ha demostrado la utilidad de los sistemas de información geográfica y de la teledetección de alta resolución espectral como herramientas de ayuda a la viticultura de precisión

There are several instruments and methods to retrieve the atmospheric Mixing Layer Height (MLH). However, none of these instruments or methods can measure the development of the MLH under all atmospheric conditions. For example, aerosol signatures measured by backscatter lidars can be used to determine the MLH but this approach is reasonable only when the atmosphere is well-mixed. Microwave Radiometer (MWR) derived pro les have low vertical resolution and cannot resolve ne structures in the boundary layer, especially, at higher altitudes. Here we propose a method which combines data from a ground-based lidar and a MWR, in simulated as well as real measurements scenarios, to overcome these limitations. The method works by tting an erf-like transition model function to the section of range-corrected lidar backscatter signal. The section of the lidar backscatter signal for tting the model function is obtained by incorporating the MWR estimates of MLH along with their uncertainties. The tting is achieved by using an extended Kalman lter (EKF). The proposed approach, by exploiting the synergy between the two instruments, enables to detect MLH with original vertical and temporal resolutions. Test cases combining simulated data for a co-located lidar-ceilometer and a MWR are presented. The simulated data is obtained from the Dutch Atmospheric Large Eddy Simulation (DALES) model for boundarylayer studies. Doppler wind lidar along with radiosondes (whenever available) data is used to assess the quality of the synergetic MLH estimates. Data from the HD(CP)2 Observational Prototype Experiment (HOPE) campaign at J ulich, Germany is used to test the proposed method.

[EN] Biological soil crusts (BSC) are complex communities formed by a close association of soil particles and cyanobacteria, algae, microfungi, lichens or bryophytes that live within or immediately on top of the uppermost millimeters of the soil surface. These communities cover non vegetated areas in most of the arid and semiarid ecosystems, and modify numerous soil surface properties and ecosystem processes. Given the importance of BSC in ecosystem functioning, accurate and spatially explicit information on the distribution of BSC is mandatory. With this objective, considerable effort has been devoted to identify and map BSC using remote sensing data, and some spectral indices have been developed. These indexes use the spectral differences among BSC and other surface components like vegetation or bare soil to identify the areas dominated by BSC. Our main objective is to test the feasibility of the previous indices published in the literature for mapping different types of BSC in a complex study area, where these index have not been developed, at different spatial scales. Our results showed the low capability of indexes based on multiespectral images to identify areas covered by BSCat field and image spatial scales. Hyperspetral indices, on the other hand, showed better results than those obtained with multispectral indices, with an accuracy around 71% because they analyzed specific absorption features related with photosynthetic pigments like chlorophyll and carotenoids. We can conclude that the spatial heterogeneity of the area and the spectral similarities among BSC, green and dry vegetation or bare soil makes it difficult to correctly distinguish BSC in arid and semiarid ecosystems using only multispectral information, whereas hyperspectral images offer an important tool to map different types of BSC and to discriminate among these and other surface components., [ES] Las biocostras o costras biológicas del suelo (CBS) son comunidades formadas por la asociación de partí-culas de suelo con microorganismos como cianobacterias, algas, hongos, líquenes, hepáticas o briófitos, que viven en la superficie del suelo. Estas comunidades bióticas cubren las áreas desprovistas de vegetación en los ecosistemas áridos y semiáridos, modificando las propiedades del suelo e influyendo en numerosos procesos clave para el funcio-namiento de los ecosistemas. Aunque representan una porción insignificante del perfil del suelo, las CBS regulan el intercambio de gases, agua y nutrientes desde y hacia el suelo, por lo que desempeñan un papel fundamental en los ecosistemas en los que aparecen. Debido al importante papel que ejercen las CBS en los ecosistemas donde aparecen y a su fragilidad frente a las acciones antrópicas, es necesario conocer de forma precisa su distribución espacial. Para ello, recientemente, se han desarrollado varios índices que permiten cartografiarlas a partir de imágenes obtenidas de sensores remotos. Este trabajo tiene por objetivo evaluar los diferentes índices desarrollados para cartografiar CBS, aplicándolos a una zona distinta para las que han sido desarrolladas. Los diferentes índices se evaluarán a dos escalas espaciales diferentes, parcela y ecosistema. A ambas escalas se analizará la fiabilidad de cada uno de los índices para la cartografía de CBS y su capacidad de diferenciar entre diferentes tipos, así como las principales cubiertas presentes en los sistemas áridos y semiáridos. La gran heterogeneidad espacial de la zona y la similitud espectral entre las CBS y la vegetación seca dificultan la correcta cartografía de ecosistemas en los que las CBS son una componente impor-tante utilizando información multiespectral. Sin embargo, los índices basados en información hiperespectral y alta resolución espacial constituyen una herramienta sólida para cartografiar CBS proporcionando una fiabilidad de 71%., Este trabajo ha sido cofinanciado por el proyecto COSTRAS (RNM 3614) de la Junta de Andalucía, y por el Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología a través del proyecto BACARCOS (CGL2011-29429), ambos cofinanciados con fondos FEDER. Los autores ademas agradecen al area de teledeteccion del INTA (Labtel) su inestimable ay

This paper presents a method for combining internal noise injection and external reference standard looks to accurately calibrate an airborne dual-channel radiometer. The method allows real-time estimation of the correct values of the radiometer gains and offsets, even for nontemperature-stabilized radiometers and with minimum loss of measurement time spent in external load measurement. Crosstalk and leakage introduced by the noise injection circuitry is also taken into account, thus providing high gain and offset estimation accuracy. The method was implemented on a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration airborne instrument, the Polarimetric Scanning Radiometer, which was used to obtain an extensive set of radiometric measurements over oceanic convection during CAMEX3 in August–September 1998.

13th Specialist Meeting on Microwave Radiometry and Remote Sensing of the Environment (MicroRad 2014), 24-27 March 2014, Pasadena, California, USA, Accurate geolocation of SMOS RFI sources is very important for effectively switching-off the illegal emitter in the protected L-band. We present a novel approach for the geolocation of SMOS RFI sources, based on the Direction of Arrival (DOA) estimation techniques normally used in the sensor array. The MUSIC DOA estimation algorithm is tailored for SMOS RFI source detection. In the test results, the proposed MUSIC method shows improved performance in terms of angular/spatial resolution

This paper provides a wrap-up of some of the activities undertaken by SMOS L1 team to fine tune the instrument calibration and modeling that eventually has resulted into a SMOS full-polarimetric measurement and image reconstruction enhanced performance

OBJETIVO: propor método de avaliação e manutenção da eficiência dos equipamentos mais comumente usados em nosso meio, de maneira a uniformizar os resultados obtidos em tratamentos fototerápicos por diferentes serviços. MATERIAL E MÉTODOS: o radiômetro/fotômetro utilizado na medida da irradiância espectral é de fabricação nacional e atende aos requisitos básicos indispensáveis. As padronizações de medida procuram ser facilmente aplicáveis e reprodutíveis aos aparelhos de fototerapia em uso no país. O material necessário às aferições, excetuando-se o radiômetro, pode ser facilmente confeccionado em qualquer serviço de neonatologia. Procuramos nos trabalhos publicados nos últimos 10 anos no Medline os pertinentes a esta revisão. RESULTADO: propõe-se que a irradiância relatada nos trabalhos de fototerapia seja fornecida como Irradiância Espectral Média e descreve-se como obtê-la, tanto em fototerapias com fontes fluorescentes como halógenas. COMENTÁRIOS: são descritos os componentes dos radiômetros/fotômetros, cuja compreensão é importante para que possamos perceber variações na sensibilidade e diferenças significativas na irradância quando as faixas de leitura dos radiômetros são um pouco diferentes. A adoção de um tipo de equipamento padrão facilitaria muito a comparação de resultados obtidos por diferentes serviços. São ainda comentadas as características de diferentes equipamentos de fototerapia que podem interferir na mensuração da irradiância dos mesmos. OBJECTIVE: to propose a method to evaluate and maintain the efficiency of equipment commonly used in Brazil in order to obtain uniform results in phototherapy treatments in different services. MATERIAL AND METHODS: the radiometer/photometer used to measure spectral irradiance is locally manufactured and fulfills basic requirements. Measure standardization seeks to be applicable and reproducible to phototherapy devices employed in Brazil. The material necessary for measurements can be easily assembled by the neonatology staff, except for the radiometer. We searched Medline for papers relevant to this review published throughout the last 10 years. RESULTS: irradiance in phototherapy issues should be referred to as "medium spectral irradiance". We describe how to obtain medium spectral irradiance using fluorescent and halogen phototherapies. COMMENTS: the components of a radiometer/photometer are described. This knowledge is fundamental to understanding sensibility variations and to justifying differences in irradiance when ranges of radiometer recording are a little different. The standardization of this device will certainly simplify the comparison between results in different services. We also analyzed characteristics of different equipment used in phototherapy that might interfere with their irradiance.

Este trabalho teve como objetivo estudar as alterações de solosdesenvolvidos numa toposseqüência composta por diabásio e folhelho (Piracicaba, SP), e sua relação com os dados espectrais. Ocorrem na toposseqüência os solos Latossolo Roxo (LR), Latossolo Vermelho-Escuro (LE), Podzólico Vermelho-Escuro (PE), Litossolo (Li) e Aluvial (Al) dos quais foram coletadas amostras a três profundidades. Foram obtidos dados de reflectância bidirecional dessas amostras em laboratório com espectrorradiômetro na faixa de 350 a 2.500 nm. As alterações da reflectância das amostras de solo das camadas superficiais e subsuperficiais foram relacionadas às diferenças nos teores de matéria orgânica e argila, que foram parâmetros importantes na caracterização espectral dos solos. Ao longo da toposseqüência, ocorreram alterações nas características dos solos, principalmente nos teores de ferro e silte e na mineralogia, que influenciaram nos dados espectrais. Os solos desenvolvidos de diabásio apresentaram altos teores de ferro, o que refletiu em concavidades mais acentuadas nas curvas espectrais em 850 nm, e intensidades de reflectância menores, ao contrário dos solos desenvolvidos de folhelho. A reflectância do PE apresentou-se mais intensa do que o LR e LE. Os solos menos intemperizados Li e Al apresentaram intensidades de reflectância mais elevadas que os mais intemperizados, LR e LE.The objective of the present research was to study the spectral reflectance of soils developed on a toposequence composed by diabase and shale, in Piracicaba region, São Paulo State, Brazil. Soil samples were collected at three depths along a transection, as they were, Typic Haplorthox (TH), Rhodic Paleudult (RP), Lithic Distrochrept (L) and Typic Fluvent (TF). Bidirectional spectral reflectance factors of the soil samples were obtained by using a spectroradiometer from 350 to 2,500 nm in laboratory conditions. Spectral alterations observed between the surface and sub-surface layers were related to their organic matter and clay content differences; and these soil parameters were important on the spectral characterization of the soils. Along the toposequence, alterations on the soil characteristics occurred, mainly on iron, silt and mineralogy, that influenced variations of the spectral data. Soils developed by diabase presented higher content of iron, that influenced the spectral curve, with a deeper concavity shape at 850 nm, and lower reflectance intensity, differently of the soils developed by shale. The spectral curves of RP presented higher reflectance intensities from TH. The less weathered soils, L and TF, presented higher reflectance intensity than the more weathered soil, TH.

This paper develops an analysis of the SAR impulse response function from the interferometric point of view, with the intention of studying its phase behavior in the presence of high squint angle values. It will be pointed out that in this case, a phase ramp is present in the range direction, which, in combination with a certain degree of misregistration between the two images induces an offset in the generated interferometric phase. This behavior, if not compensated, imposes strong limits on the performance of the interferometric techniques in a squinted case, especially for airborne SAR systems. The article proposes two new techniques, which are appropriate to correct the phase bias coming from this source. The first one is based on a modification of the azimuth compression filter, which cancels the phase ramp of the range impulse response function for one specific squint value. In case the SAR processing is performed with variable squint over range, the authors propose a second method oriented to estimating the expected misregistration and thus, the phase bias by means of an iterative approach. Simulated data as well as real corner reflector responses are used to show that the correct topography can be recovered precisely even in the presence of phase bias coming from the squinted geometry.

10 pages, 14 figures, 1 tabl3, The local oscillators (LOs) of the Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity mission payload are used to shift the operating frequency of the 72 receivers to an optimal intermediate frequency needed for the signal processing. The LO temperature variations produce phase errors in the visibility, which result in a blurring of the reconstructed brightness temperature (Tb) image. At the end of the commissioning phase, it was decided to calibrate the LO every 10 min while waiting for a more in-depth analysis. During short periods of time, the LO calibration has been performed every 2 min to assess the impact of a higher calibration rate on the quality of the data. In this paper, by means of a decimation experiment, the relative errors of 6- and 10-min calibration interval data sets are estimated using the 2 min as a reference. A noticeable systematic across- and along-track pattern of amplitude $pm$0.3 K is observed for Tb differences between 10 and 2 min, whereas this is reduced between 6 and 2 min. A simulation experiment confirms that the nature of such systematic pattern is due to the visibility phase errors induced by the LO calibration rate. Such pattern is propagated into the sea surface salinity (SSS) retrievals. Overall, the SSS error increase (relative to the 2 min SSS data) is about 0.39 and 0.14 psu for the 10- and 6-min data sets, respectively. This paper shows that a LO calibration rate of at least 6 min would noticeably improve the SSS retrievals, The SMOS Level 2 Prototype Processor development was funded by the European Space Agency under different contracts

Rapidly developing unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) have provided the remote sensing community with a new rapidly deployable tool for small area monitoring. The progress of small payload UAVs has introduced greater demand for light weight aerial payloads. For applications requiring aerial images, a simple consumer camera provides acceptable data. For applications requiring more detailed spectral information about the surface, a new Fabry-Perot interferometer based spectral imaging technology has been developed. This new technology produces tens of successive images of the scene at different wavelength bands in very short time. These images can be assembled in spectral data cubes with stereoscopic overlaps. On field the weather conditions vary and the UAV operator often has to decide between flight in sub optimal conditions and no flight. Our objective was to investigate methods for quantitative radiometric processing of images taken under varying illumination conditions, thus expanding the range of weather conditions during which successful imaging flights can be made. A new method that is based on insitu measurement of irradiance either in UAV platform or in ground was developed. We tested the methods in a precision agriculture application using realistic data collected in difficult illumination conditions. Internal homogeneity of the original image data (average coefficient of variation in overlapping images) was 0.14–0.18. In the corrected data, the homogeneity was 0.10–0.12 with a correction based on broadband irradiance measured in UAV, 0.07–0.09 with a correction based on spectral irradiance measurement on ground, and 0.05–0.08 with a radiometric block adjustment based on image data. Our results were very promising, indicating that quantitative UAV based remote sensing could be operational in diverse conditions, which is prerequisite for many environmental remote sensing applications.

This paper presents the characterization in terms of spatial resolution and radiometric sensitivity of a W-band Total Power Radiometer (TPR). The TPR is based on a heterodyne receiver with 64 dB of gain and 6.5 dB of noise figure. An antenna system consisting on a pan-tilt scanner has been designed and built in order to aim a 100 mm offset parabolic reflector. With this system, relative temperature images of targets at a 1 m standoff range are obtained in indoor environments with an spatial resolution of 4 cm.

There is an ample literature on spectral indices as estimators of the crop’s chlorophyll concentration, and, by extension, of the nitrogen concentration. In this line, the suitability of 21 of these indices was evaluated as nitrogen concentration indicators for the dual-purpose (fodder and grain) triticale (X Triticosecale Wittmack). The interval of interest was the one in that it would be possible to intervene to correct the deficiency of nitrogen (defined according to practical criteria); one peculiarity of this study is that it only develops a model for that period; more developments complicate the profitability, because the annual stability is not guaranteed and calibration studies are expensive. The results showed that, although there are significant correlations between the greenness indices and the crop’s nitrogen concentration, for none of the spectral indices the relationship can reach acceptable values that encourage their use in the new techniques of precision agriculture of low cost. One solution for improving the effectiveness and reduce costs could be to use the information contained in the spectral signature beyond what is easily explicable by biochemistry and biophysics, in other words, using data mining in the search for new spectral indices directly related to the concentration of nitrogen in plant and stable throughout crop development. At present, the squared correlation coefficient (R2) of the best fits reach 0.5 for the later phenological stages, this mark is reduced to 0.3 with an approach of low cost, Existe una extensa literatura que describe el potencial de los índices espectrales como indicadores de la concentración de clorofila en el cultivo y, por extensión, de la concentración de nitrógeno. En esta línea se encuentra este trabajo, donde se evalúa la idoneidad de los 21 índices espectrales más usados para realizar estimaciones en triticale (X TriticosecaleWittmack) de doble propósito (forraje-grano). El intervalo fenológico de interés se define siguiendo criterios prácticos, es aquel durante el cual se puede actuar para corregir una deficiencia de nitrógeno. Una peculiaridad es que sólo se desarrolla un modelo para todo ese periodo; más desarrollos complicarían la rentabilidad, ya que la estabilidad de los modelos no está garantizada y las calibraciones son costosas. Los resultados mostraron que, aunque existe correlación significativa entre los índices de verdor y la concentración de nitrógeno, para ninguno de los índices espectrales la relación alcanza valores que animen a su uso en las metodologías de bajo coste. Para mejorar la efectividad y reducir costes se podría usar la información contenida en la firma espectral más allá de lo que es fácilmente explicable por la bioquímica-biofísica, en otras palabras, usar la minería de datos en la búsqueda de índices espectrales directamente relacionados con la concentración de nitrógeno y estables a lo largo del desarrollo del cultivo. El coeficiente de correlación al cuadrado (R2) del mejor de los ajustes existentes alcanza un valor de 0,5 para los últimos estadios fenológicos, marca que se reduce a 0,3 al emplear una metodología de bajo coste.

The Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) mission launched in November 2009 will provide, for the first time, satellite observations of sea surface salinity (SSS). At level 3 (L3) of the SMOS processing chain, the large amount of SSS data obtained by the satellite will be summarized in gridded products with the aim of synthesizing the information and reducing the error of individual SSS observations. In this paper, we present the algorithm adopted by the CP34 SMOS processing center to generate the SMOS L3 products and discuss the choices adopted. The algorithm is based on optimal statistical interpolation. This method needs the following: 1) the prescription of a background field; 2) a prefiltering procedure to reduce the data set size; 3) the definition of a suitable correlation model; and 4) the characterization of the observational error statistics. For the present initial stage, a monthly climatology is chosen as the best background field. The spatiotemporal correlations between the departures from the climatology are described using a bivariate Gaussian function. The correlation model parameters are obtained by fitting the function to the realistic ocean model data. The sensitivity experiments show that an accurate correlation model that permits local variations in the correlation parameters is the best option. The observational error statistics (bias, variance, and correlation) are addressed from the results of the SMOS level-2 processor simulator. Finally, several sensitivity experiments show that a bad prescription of observational errors in the L3 algorithm does result in a dramatic impact on the generation of L3 products. © 2006 IEEE.

Hi ha una gran quantitat d’estudis de caire geofísic [1] que determinen, des de fa molts anys, que un 70% de la superfície total del nostre planeta és aigua; és més, se sap que un 97% del total d’aquesta aigua és la superfície formada pel conjunt de tots els oceans. Paradoxalment a aquest fet, el coneixement de les característiques físiques d’aquest medi no és tan exhaustiu com caldria esperar. Aquest projecte final de carrera s’emmarca, doncs, dins d’aquest ampli estudi. Concretament, com s’explicarà més endavant, dins de la part corresponent a l’estudi de l’estat del mar, que ens permetrà saber amb més exactitud el valor de la salinitat dels oceans a nivell mundial

Bightness-temperature retrieval techniques for synthetic aperture radiometers are reviewed. Three different approaches to combine measured visibility and antenna temperatures, along with instrument characterization data, into a general equation to invert are presented. Discretization and windowing techniques are briefly discussed, and formulas for reciprocal grids using rectangular and hexagonal samplings are given. Two known techniques are used to invert the equation, namely, inverse Fourier transform and G-matrix pseudoinverse. The proposed preprocessing approaches combined with these two inversion methods are implemented with real data measured by an airborne Y-shaped interferometric radiometer over land and water, and are compared. The images indicate that best results are obtained when inverting an incremental visibility obtained after substracting a term that includes the individual antenna temperatures, the physical temperatures of the receivers, and a flat-target response directly measured from cold-sky looks.

The on-ground characterization of the synthetic aperture radiometer onboard the Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity mission is described. Characterization includes basic functionality, internal calibration, thermal cycling, response to point and flat sources, self-radio-frequency interference, and others. The description of the different tests performed as well as the detailed results are provided. The results show that the instrument is very stable and has all gains and offsets consistent with the ones obtained at subsystem level. On the other hand, the phase of the visibility has a larger variation with temperature than expected, a small signal leakage from the local oscillators is present, and a small interference from the X-band transmitter during short periods of time has been detected. The implementation of internal-calibration procedures, along with the accurate thermal characterization performed, have been used to produce highly accurate brightness-temperature values well within specifications.

In preparation for the European Space Agency SMOS (Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity) satellite mission, radiometric and oceanographic measurements were performed in December 2000 and January 2001 and in November 2001 from a fixed platform in the NW Mediterranean to improve the modelling of the sea surface emissivity at L-band and new semi-empirical models were derived. Now one of these models has been used to retrieve sea surface salinity from L-band radiometric data acquired with a different instrument and different location. These data were acquired in August 2003 over the continental shelf within the influence of the Rio de la Plata, from Argentina to Brazil, southern Atlantic ocean with the STARRS airborne radiometer. Results show that the radiometer is capable of realistically detecting natural variations in surface salinity even though the model was derived in very different oceanographic conditions and from data collected by a different instrument., Para preparar la misión satelital SMOS (Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity) de la Agencia Espacial Europea, varias medidas radiométricas y oceanográficas se llevaron a cabo en el año 2000 y 2001 desde una plataforma fija en el Mediterráneo noroccidental. El objetivo de estas campañas era mejorar los modelos de la emisividad superficial del mar en banda L y de ellas se derivaron varios modelos semi-empíricos. Ahora, unos de estos modelos se ha usado para el cálculo de la salinidad superficial del mar a partir de datos radiométricos en banda L, obtenidos con un instrumento diferente y en un área distinta. Estos datos se adquirieron en agosto del 2003 en la plataforma continental desde Argentina a Brasil, en el Atlántico sur, donde hay una gran influencia del Río de la Plata, con el radiómetro STARRS a bordo de un avión. Los resultados muestran que el radiómetro es capaz de detectar las variaciones naturales de la salinidad del mar, independientemente de que el modelo semi-empírico usado fuera derivado en condiciones oceanográficas completamente diferentes y con un instrumento distinto.

8 pages, 4 figures, 1 table, [EN] In preparation for the European Space Agency SMOS (Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity) satellite mission, radiometric and oceanographic measurements were performed in December 2000 and January 2001 and in November 2001 from a fixed platform in the NW Mediterranean to improve the modelling of the sea surface emissivity at L-band and new semi-empirical models were derived. Now one of these models has been used to retrieve sea surface salinity from L-band radiometric data acquired with a different instrument and different location. These data were acquired in August 2003 over the continental shelf within the influence of the Rio de la Plata, from Argentina to Brazil, southern Atlantic ocean with the STARRS airborne radiometer. Results show that the radiometer is capable of realistically detecting natural variations in surface salinity even though the model was derived in very different oceanographic conditions and from data collected by a different instrument, [ES] Para preparar la misión satelital SMOS (Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity) de la Agencia Espacial Europea, varias medidas radiométricas y oceanográficas se llevaron a cabo en el año 2000 y 2001 desde una plataforma fija en el Mediterráneo noroccidental. El objetivo de estas campañas era mejorar los modelos de la emisividad superficial del mar en banda L y de ellas se derivaron varios modelos semi-empíricos. Ahora, unos de estos modelos se ha usado para el cálculo de la salinidad superficial del mar a partir de datos radiométricos en banda L, obtenidos con un instrumento diferente y en un área distinta. Estos datos se adquirieron en agosto del 2003 en la plataforma continental desde Argentina a Brasil, en el Atlántico sur, donde hay una gran influencia del Río de la Plata, con el radiómetro STARRS a bordo de un avión. Los resultados muestran que el radiómetro es capaz de detectar las variaciones naturales de la salinidad del mar, independientemente de que el modelo semi-empírico usado fuera derivado en condiciones oceanográficas completamente diferentes y con un instrumento distinto, This study is a contribution to the MIDAS-3 and MIDAS-4 projects funded by the Spanish National Programme on Space (ESP2004-00671, ESP2005-06823-C05) to develop algorithms for retrieving sea surface salinity for the SMOS mission

Speckle noise represents one of the major problems when synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data are considered. Despite the fact that speckle is caused by the scattering process itself, it must be considered as a noise source due to the complexity of the scattering process. The presence of speckle makes data interpretation difficult, but it also affects the quantitative retrieval of physical parameters. In the case of one-dimensional SAR systems, speckle is completely determined by a multiplicative noise component. Nevertheless, for multidimensional SAR systems, speckle results from the combination of multiplicative and additive noise components. This model has been first developed for single-look data. The objective of this paper is to extend the single-look data model to define a multilook multidimensional speckle noise model. The asymptotic analysis of this extension, for a large number of averaged samples, is also considered to assess the model properties. Details and validation of the multilook multidimensional speckle noise model are provided both theoretically and by means of experimental SAR data acquired by the experimental synthetic aperture radar system, operated by the German Aerospace Center.

Sea surface salinity can be remotely measured by means of L-band microwave radiometry. However, the brightness temperature also depends on the sea surface temperature and on the sea state, which is probably today one of the driving factors in the salinity retrieval error budgets of the European Space Agency's Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) mission and the NASA-Comision Nacional de Actividades Espaciales Aquarius/SAC-D mission. This paper describes the Passive Advanced Unit (PAU) for ocean monitoring. PAU combines in a single instrument three different sensors: an L-band radiometer with digital beamforming (DBF) (PAU-RAD) to measure the brightness temperature of the sea at different incidence angles simultaneously, a global positioning system (GPS) reflectometer [PAU-reflectometer of Global Navigation Satellite Signals (GNSS-R)] also with DBF to measure the sea state from the delay-Doppler maps, and two infrared radiometers to provide sea surface temperature estimates. The key characteristic of this instrument is that both PAU-RAD and the PAU-GNSS/R share completely the RF/IF front-end, and analog-to-digital converters. Since in order to track the GPS-reflected signal, it is not possible to chop the antenna signal as in a Dicke radiometer, a new radiometer topology has been devised which makes uses of two receiving chains and a correlator, which has the additional advantage that both PAU-RAD and PAU-GNSS/R can be operated continuously and simultaneously to perform the sea-state corrections of the brightness temperature. This paper presents the main characteristics of the different PAU subsystems, and analyzes in detail the PAU-radiometer concept.

This paper reviews the relative calibration of an interferometric radiometer taking into account the experimental results of the first batch of receivers developed in the frame of the European Space Agency's Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity mission. Measurements show state-of-the-art baseline performance as long as the system is capable of correcting the effect of orbital temperature swing. A method to validate internal calibration during in-orbit deep-sky views and to correct linearity errors is also presented.

Accurate measurement of the antenna voltage patterns of large-aperture synthesis radiometers is critical in order to achieve good radiometric accuracy, and a very time consuming and expensive task. Measurement requirements and a tradeoff study relating radiometric accuracy degradation and number of elements to be measured are presented.

The Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) Earth Explorer Opportunity Mission was selected in May 1999 by the European Space Agency Earth Observation Programme Board to provide global and frequent soil moisture (SM) and sea surface salinity (SSS) maps. SMOS' single payload is the Microwave Imaging Radiometer by Aperture Synthesis (MIRAS) sensor, an L-band two-dimensional aperture synthesis interferometric radiometer with multiangular and polarimetric imaging capabilities. The definition of the SMOS Level 2 Processor requires the selection of the optimum operation mode (dual-polarization or full-polarimetric) for each application, the specification of the required auxiliary data, and the optimum retrieval algorithms. Using the SMOS simulator and based on the experience gained in previous works, this paper presents a study of the SM and SSS retrieval capabilities over homogeneous pixels, in the two modes of operation with different auxiliary data. It is found that SSS retrievals using the first Stokes parameter measured in the dual-polarization mode perform somewhat worse than using the vertical (T/sub vv/) and horizontal (T/sub hh/) brightness temperatures measured in the full-polarimetric mode, and the performance degrades for cold waters due to the lower sensitivity of the brightness temperature to SSS at low sea surface temperature (SST). Due to the larger angular variation of T/sub hh/ and T/sub vv/, SM retrievals using T/sub hh/ and T/sub vv/ measured in the full-polarimetric mode exhibit a significant better performance over bare soils than over vegetation-covered soils. Over vegetation-covered soils vegetation parameters (opacity and albedo) can be inferred over a 550-km swath width in the full-polarimetric mode. However, since the first Stokes parameter is independent of both geometric and Faraday rotations, it is very robust in the presence of instrumental and geophysical errors. In the SSS retrieval problem and in the SM retrieval problem (with T/sub hh/ and T/sub vv/ measured in the full-polarimetric mode), the performance of the retrieval algorithms tested is not significantly altered if the model parameters are not exactly known, but are left as adjustable parameters in the optimization process.

Sea surface salinity can be measured by microwave radiometry at L-band (1400–1427 MHz). This frequency is a compromise between sensitivity to the salinity, small atmospheric perturbation, and reasonable pixel resolution. The description of the ocean emission depends on two main factors: 1) the sea water permittivity, which is a function of salinity, temperature, and frequency, and 2) the sea surface state, which depends on the wind-induced wave spectrum, swell, and rain-induced roughness spectrum, and by the foam coverage and its emissivity. This study presents a simplified two-layer emission model for foam-covered water and the results of a controlled experiment to measure the foam emissivity as a function of salinity, foam thickness, incidence angle, and polarization. Experimental results are presented, and then compared to the two-layer foam emission model with the measured foam parameters used as input model parameters. At 37 psu salt water the foam-induced emissivity increase is 0.007 per millimeter of foam thickness (extrapolated to nadir), increasing with increasing incidence angles at vertical polarization, and decreasing with

The PLANCK mission of the European Space Agency is devoted to produce sky maps of the cosmic microwave background radiation. The low-frequency instrument is a wide-band cryogenic microwave radiometer array operating at 30, 44, and 70 GHz. The design, test techniques, and performance of the complete differential radiometer at 30 GHz are presented. This elegant breadboard 30-GHz radiometer is composed of a front-end module (FEM) assembled at the Jodrell Bank Observatory, Cheshire, U.K., and a back-end module assembled at the Universidad de Cantabria, Cantabria, Spain, and Telecomunicacio/spl acute/, Universitat Polite/spl acute/cnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain. The system noise temperature was excellent, mainly due to the very low noise performance of the FEM amplifiers, which achieved an average noise temperature of 9.4 K.

The effect of the frequency dependence of the antenna voltage patterns within the bandwidth of an aperture synthesis interferometric radiometer is studied and quantified using actual antenna voltage patterns measured at different frequencies for the first nine receivers of the Microwave Imaging Radiometer with Aperture Synthesis instrument aboard the European Space Agency's Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity mission. A technique is proposed to mitigate this effect.

The goal of the Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity mission over land is to infer surface soil moisture from multiangular L-band radiometric measurements. As the canopy affects the microwave emission of land, it is necessary to characterize different vegetation layers. This paper presents the Reference Pixel L-Band Experiment (REFLEX), carried out in June-July 2003 at the Vale/spl grave/ncia Anchor Station, Spain, to study the effects of grapevines on the soil emission and on the soil moisture retrieval. A wide range of soil moisture (SM), from saturated to completely dry soil, was measured with the Universitat Polite/spl grave/cnica de Catalunya's L-band Automatic Radiometer (LAURA). Concurrently with the radiometric measurements, the gravimetric soil moisture, temperature, and roughness were measured, and the vines were fully characterized. The opacity and albedo of the vineyard have been estimated and found to be independent on the polarization. The /spl tau--//spl omega/ model has been used to retrieve the SM and the vegetation parameters, obtaining a good accuracy for incidence angles up to 55/spl deg/. Algorithms with a three-parameter optimization (SM, albedo albedo, and opacity) exhibit a better performance than those with one-parameter optimization (SM).

O presente trabalho teve como objetivo estabelecer um método para a utilização de dados espectrais, obtidos em laboratório e imagens do Landsat 5, no reconhecimento e discriminação de três classes de solos do estado de São Paulo. Foram coletadas amostras de solo e obtidos os dados de reflectância por espectrorradiômetro em laboratório como padrão de um Latossolo Vermelho distroférrico (LVdf), um Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo (PVA) e Neossolo Quartzarênico (RQ). Foram extraídos dados de reflectância das imagens, com os quais se efetuou a classificação digital pelo classificador Spectral Angular Mapper. As curvas espectrais obtidas por espectrorradiômetro em laboratório mostraram três padrões distintos de comportamento espectral, baseados nas diferenças da forma das curvas, feições de absorção dos minerais do solo e na intensidade de reflectância. O LVdf apresentou menor albedo em virtude da textura argilosa e maiores teores de Fe, ao contrário dos solos mais arenosos PVA e RQ. As bandas de absorção características da caulinta (2.200 nm), OH- e água (1.400 e 1.900 nm) ocorreram em todos os solos. Solos arenosos, como o RQ, apresentaram uma curva espectral com tendência positiva. A linha do solo mostrou distinção espectral, tanto com dados orbitais como terrestres, indicando que cada solo tem uma tendência individual. Os padrões espectrais obtidos em laboratório foram importantes para a eficiência do método na detecção dos mesmos nas imagens de satélite. Os solos avaliados podem ser discriminados e reconhecidos pela interpretação quantitativa em imagens. O método mostrou-se eficiente como auxílio no mapeamento de solos no nível semidetalhado de alta intensidade. The objective of this research was to determine a methodology for the use of spectral data obtained in the laboratory and from orbital images for the recognition and discrimination of three soil classes in the State of São Paulo, Brazil. Reflectance data were obtained by a spectroradiometer/by Landsat 5 images in the laboratory as standards from soil samples of Oxisol, Ultisol, and Entisol profiles. Orbital data were converted to reflectance and classified by the Spectral Angle Mapper. The spectral curves obtained by a spectroradiometer in the laboratory showed three different patterns, based on the differences in the shape of the curves, soil mineral absorption features, and the reflectance intensity. The Oxisol presented smaller reflectance due to the clayey texture and greater iron content, in relation to the sandier Ultisols and Psament. The characteristic absorption bands of kaolinite (2,200 nm), OH-, and water (1,400 and 1,900 nm) occurred in all soils. Sandy soils such as the Psament presented a spectral curve with positive tendency. The soils were discriminated by the images (bands 5 and 7), being the terrestrial sensor data an important support in this evaluation. The soil line showed spectral distinction for both orbital and terrestrial data, indicating an individual tendency for each soil. The spectral standards obtained in the laboratory were important for the efficiency of the methodology to identify the same in the satellite images. The methodology was efficient to detect areas with exposed soil in the image. The methodology showed that the soil classes used in this work can be recognized and discriminated by orbital data. The obtained results of the digital classification indicated that this technique can be used to support soil survey at a semi-detailed level of high intensity.

Two-dimensional aperture synthesis radiometry is the technology selected for ESA's SMOS mission to provide high resolution L-band radiometric imagery. The array topology is a Y-shaped structure. The position and number of redundant elements to minimise instrument degradation in case of element failure(s) are studied.

This paper presents a method for compensating the elevation angle fluctuations occurring in airborne radiometry due to aircraft roll and pitch. The correction is based on a radiative transfer model, and is demonstrated by real data from conical scans over the ocean, showing good results.

Este trabalho teve como objetivo estudar as alterações de solosdesenvolvidos numa toposseqüência composta por diabásio e folhelho (Piracicaba, SP), e sua relação com os dados espectrais. Ocorrem na toposseqüência os solos Latossolo Roxo (LR), Latossolo Vermelho-Escuro (LE), Podzólico Vermelho-Escuro (PE), Litossolo (Li) e Aluvial (Al) dos quais foram coletadas amostras a três profundidades. Foram obtidos dados de reflectância bidirecional dessas amostras em laboratório com espectrorradiômetro na faixa de 350 a 2.500 nm. As alterações da reflectância das amostras de solo das camadas superficiais e subsuperficiais foram relacionadas às diferenças nos teores de matéria orgânica e argila, que foram parâmetros importantes na caracterização espectral dos solos. Ao longo da toposseqüência, ocorreram alterações nas características dos solos, principalmente nos teores de ferro e silte e na mineralogia, que influenciaram nos dados espectrais. Os solos desenvolvidos de diabásio apresentaram altos teores de ferro, o que refletiu em concavidades mais acentuadas nas curvas espectrais em 850 nm, e intensidades de reflectância menores, ao contrário dos solos desenvolvidos de folhelho. A reflectância do PE apresentou-se mais intensa do que o LR e LE. Os solos menos intemperizados Li e Al apresentaram intensidades de reflectância mais elevadas que os mais intemperizados, LR e LE. The objective of the present research was to study the spectral reflectance of soils developed on a toposequence composed by diabase and shale, in Piracicaba region, São Paulo State, Brazil. Soil samples were collected at three depths along a transection, as they were, Typic Haplorthox (TH), Rhodic Paleudult (RP), Lithic Distrochrept (L) and Typic Fluvent (TF). Bidirectional spectral reflectance factors of the soil samples were obtained by using a spectroradiometer from 350 to 2,500 nm in laboratory conditions. Spectral alterations observed between the surface and sub-surface layers were related to their organic matter and clay content differences; and these soil parameters were important on the spectral characterization of the soils. Along the toposequence, alterations on the soil characteristics occurred, mainly on iron, silt and mineralogy, that influenced variations of the spectral data. Soils developed by diabase presented higher content of iron, that influenced the spectral curve, with a deeper concavity shape at 850 nm, and lower reflectance intensity, differently of the soils developed by shale. The spectral curves of RP presented higher reflectance intensities from TH. The less weathered soils, L and TF, presented higher reflectance intensity than the more weathered soil, TH.

The spatial resolution of current space-borne Earth observation radiometers is limited by the physical antenna aperture. This is especially critical at L-band, which exhibits high sensitivity to soil moisture and sea surface salinity. Interferometric radiometers (InR's) are currently being studied by several space agencies as a feasible alternative to overcome this problem. However, their calibration is a crucial issue since most techniques inherited from radio astronomy cannot be directly applied. Due to the large number of receiving channels, calibration techniques based on centralized noise injection from a single noise source will require a large and stable distribution network, which is technically very complex and unacceptable from the point-of-view of mass and volume. Procedures based on distributed noise injection from a set of noise sources through smaller distribution networks have been recently proposed by the authors as an alternative to alleviate these technological problems. In this paper, the analysis of these networks, the impact of the noise generated by the network losses on the calibration, and the impact of front-end reradiated noise are analyzed. Finally, the optimum circuit topologies and tolerances to which these networks have to be characterized in order to achieve the required calibration are derived. These configurations are formed by cascading basic 1:2 and 1:3 isolated power splitters. Isolators at receiver inputs have to be included in order to minimize offsets originating from the correlation of reradiation of receiver noise. It has been found that, in order to satisfy the calibration requirements of InR's, the S-parameters of the ensemble noise-injection network plus isolators have to be known to within 0.025-0.050 dB in amplitude and 0.5° in phase, and their physical temperature known to within 0.5°C.

O objetivo do presente trabalho foi avaliar a eficiência da reflectância espectral na discriminação e diagnóstico de diferentes níveis de erosão. Para tanto, quatro perfis de solos (Latossolo Vermelho-Amarelo, Terra Roxa Estruturada latossólica, Cambissolo de basalto e Vertissolo), localizados numa toposseqüência na região de Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brasil, foram submetidos à avaliação de atributos químicos, físicos e mineralógicos para verificar sua influência na reflectância. Os dados espectrais foram coletados, utilizando espectrorradiômetro no intervalo de 400 a 2.500 nm, em laboratório. O processo erosivo dos solos foi considerado de acordo com as profundidades de coleta de amostras no perfil, sendo: 0-5, 10-20, 40-60 e 60-80 cm, correspondentes à erosão nula (testemunha), erosão ligeira, erosão moderada e erosão severa, respectivamente. Com os dados espectrais obtidos em laboratório, foram também simuladas respostas do TM-LANDSAT-5, relacionando-os com os atributos do solo e os níveis de erosão. Na medida em que aumentou o grau de erosão, ocorreram alterações, principalmente no teor de matéria orgânica, provocando modificações no caráter espectral. Quanto mais erodido foi o solo, maior a intensidade da curva espectral entre 600 e 2.400 nm. As bandas de absorção devidas aos óxidos de ferro (850 nm), água (1.400 e 1.900 nm) e caulinita (2.200 nm), por sua vez, apresentaram-se mais intensas nos solos erodidos. Os dados espectrais do LANDSAT mostraram-se menos detalhados e, por conseqüência, menos eficientes na detecção dos níveis de erosão. Apesar disso, as bandas 3, 4, 5 e 7 discriminaram os solos não erodidos dos erodidos por meio da intensidade e tendência das curvas. The objective of this work was to evaluate the efficiency of spectral reflectance in the detection of different erosion levels present in soils. Four soils, corresponding to a Red-Yellow Latosol (Oxisol), Latosolic Terra Roxa Estruturada (Ultisol), Cambisol (Inceptisol) and Vertisol, located in a toposequence in Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil, were evaluated for their chemical, physical and mineralogical attributes. The spectral reflectance was measured between 400 and 2,500 nm using an Infra Red Intelligent Spectroradiometer. Each soil was collected according to the depth-increments 0-5, 10-20, 40-60, 60-80 cm, which were considered as no erosion (control), slight erosion, moderate erosion and severe erosion, respectively. Spectral data obtained under laboratory conditions, which simulated data from the TM-LANDSAT-5 satelite, were then correlated with the soil erosion process. As the degree of simulated erosion increased, alterations in the soils occurred, mainly with the organic matter content, causing modifications in the spectral characteristics. The more eroded the soil, the higher was the spectral reflectance intensity between 600 and 2,400 nm. The absorption bands, due to iron oxides (850 nm), water (1,400 and 1,900 nm) and kaolinite (2,200 nm), were more intense in the eroded soils. Spectral data from LANDSAT were less detailed, for discriminating erosion levels in soils and, consequently, less efficient. Even under these conditions, bands 3, 4, 5 and 7 discriminated the non eroded soils from the eroded ones.

The prediction of the radiometric sensitivity of correlation radiometers based on the system parameters requires knowledge of the standard deviation of each measurement due to the finite integration time. Theoretical formulations have been experimentally validated showing the dependence of the standard deviation with the measurement and extended for arbitrary over sampling factors.

Analytical expressions for the errors generated in 1 bit/2-level digital correlators (IB/2L) are derived: threshold errors in comparators and timing (skew and jitter) errors in samplers. These expressions are used to specify the parameters of the comparators and samplers in high performance 1B/2L digital correlators that are required in Earth observation synthetic aperture radiometry.

Remote sensing has been commonly considered as an effective technique in developing precision agriculture tools. Ground based and satellite spectral sensors have wide uses to retrieve remotely quantitative biophysical and biochemical characteristics of vegetation canopies as well as vegetation ground cover. Usually in-field remote sensing technologies use either a combination of interferential filters and photodiodes or different compact spectrometers to separate the spectral regions of interest. In this paper we present a new development of a sensor with LEDs used as spectrally selective photodetectors. Its performance was compared with a photodiode-filter sensor used in agronomic applications. Subsequent measurements of weed cover degree were performed and compared with other methodologies. Results show that the new LEDs based sensor has similar features that conventional ones to determining the weed soil cover degree; while LEDs based sensor has comparative advantages related its very low manufacturing cost and its robustness compatible with agricultural field applications., Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias y Forestales, Centro de Investigaciones Ópticas