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This paper discusses the state-of-the-art procedures obtained in the research projects performed by Delft University of Technology and ProRail, together with other partners and experts, such as Netherlands Railways, to optimize the wheel/rail interface on the Dutch rail system. The wheel/rail interface has been the focus of a significant number of research projects and improvement measures in the Netherlands over the last 10 years. ProRail’s rails are subjected today to a ‘stress regime’, with high friction and loads from their operation, certainly since the introduction of new rolling stock and new rail types. This has resulted in cracks and premature loss of rail life due to rolling contact fatigue (RCF), particularly in curves and turnouts. Once damage occurs, it accelerates the degradation of track. This can be avoided by grinding that introduces artificial wear and moving more towards a ‘wear regime’, where initial cracks do not ‘survive’ and do not have the possibility to initiate and grow to form deep defects. Following this philosophy, a preventive gradual grinding strategy has been implemented to remove developing fatigue damage. Also, resistance to stress and avoidance of stress on the rails have been identified as possible strategies. This has led to various developments. A new ‘anti-head check’ rail profile (54E5) and use of new rail steels have led to reduced contact stresses and RCF initiation. Wheel/rail interface conditioning is being introduced to reduce noise and contact stress using on-train applicators. Wheel profiles have been optimized based on the new 54E5 profile and ongoing research focuses more and more on a holistic approach to wheel, rail and bogie design. This paper presents key projects and outcomes of the RCF research programme. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Abstract: This paper presents evidences obtained by field monitoring, measurement and survey to show the validity of some numerical predictions about squat growth. The predictions concerns a postulated squat growth process, the relationship between the dynamic contact force and the corrugation-like wave pattern that often follows squats, the high frequency wheel–rail interaction related to squats, and the influence of tangential force on squat growth. The observations reveal signature tunes of squats which may be used for early detection of squats, show the necessity to include high frequency dynamic wheel–rail interaction in squat-related analyses, and provide evidence of relationship between rolling stock performance and squat initiation and growth. In validating the numerical results the model is also verified for its applicability to analyses of squat-related problem and other problems similar in nature. The model can be employed for the solution of three-dimensional frictional rolling contact problems. It can also be used for analyses of loading conditions of wheel–rail contact at short wave defects, and the associated damages such as wear, plastic deformation, fatigue and corrugation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Polygonal wear is a type of damage commonly observed on the railway wheel tread. It induces wheel-rail impacts and consequent train/track components failure. This study presents a finite element (FE) thermomechanical wheel-rail contact model, which is able to cope with the three possible generation and development mechanisms of polygonal wear: initial defects, thermal effect, and structural dynamics. The polygonal wear-induced impact contact and further development of wear are simulated. The simulated elastic contact solutions are verified against the program CONTACT. Different material properties (elastic, elasto-plastic and elasto-plastic-thermo, i.e. with thermal softening) and initial polygonal profiles are then applied to the FE model to investigate the influence of wheel/rail material and wear amplitude on wheel-rail contact stress and wear development. The simulations indicate that the wheel-rail impact-induced temperature may reach up to 362 ℃ at the contact interface, and the high temperature at the contact area influences wheel-rail contact stress and wear depth. • An innovative thermomechanical FE model is presented to study polygonal wear growth. • The simulated contact solutions are verified against the program CONTACT. • Using elastic material models causes overestimation of contact stress and wear depth. • Incorporating thermal effects is crucial for wear predication with high slip ratio. • The simulated contact temperature reaches up to 362 ℃ at the wheel-rail interface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Weld-induced rail squats are studied through a five-year continual field monitoring and numerical simulations. • Different stages in the development of squats were observed in the field monitoring. • The development process is presented, from inhomogeneous material in HAZs to two-lung-shaped squats associated with cracks. • The formation mechanism in terms of dynamic contact force and differential plastic deformation is proposed. • Numerical simulations are performed to verify the pre-cracking process. Weld-induced squats are a major damage type in high-speed railways as well as in conventional railways. They incur high maintenance costs and endanger operational safety. This paper first presents and analyzes five-year continual field monitoring observations and measurements of squats at rail welds. A hypothesis of the formation and development process of the squats is proposed, which includes three steps. Steps 1 and 2 are pre-cracking, and Step 3 is post-cracking. To verify the pre-cracking process, a three-dimensional (3D) finite element (FE) model is then built up to simulate the vehicle-track interaction with detailed consideration of the local wheel-rail frictional rolling contact. Not only dynamic contact forces but also plastic deformation and wear are calculated. Starting from a smooth rail surface with varying yield stress derived from field-measured hardness, the numerical analysis confirms the hypothesis that the varying hardness at heat-affected zones (HAZs) leads to initial V-shaped irregularities due to differential plastic deformation. Afterward, the surface irregularities excite the dynamic longitudinal contact force, which in turn produces a W-shaped surface pattern through further differential plastic deformation. The growth of the W-shaped pattern leads to the formation of squats. This work provides insight into the squat formation process at rail welds and suggests that welding quality control in terms of hardness variation in the HAZs could reduce or even avoid squats. Early detection of squats with dynamics-based methods is possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rail squats originate from a number of sources, such as corrugations, indentations and welds. A five-year continual field monitoring study was performed on squats induced by corrugations. This study indicated that a small black depression formed at the corrugation under wheel-rail dynamic forces, and then, a primary crack typically initiated on the gauge side edge of the depression. Subsequently, the crack began to propagate in the rail surface in a U shape toward the gauge side in both the traffic direction and the opposite-traffic direction and into the rail toward the field side at an angle of approximately 20°. Rail inclination could influence the crack initiation location and propagation path. The geometry of the black squat depression was initially elliptical, and then, its edge followed the U-shaped cracking path as it grew. The squats turned into a kidney-like shape, typically with a U-shaped crack. Tensile stress likely led to the squat crack initiation and propagation. This cracking phenomenon and mechanism are analogous to the ring/cone crack formation of brittle materials under sphere-sliding contact. As the squats grew further, a ridge formed in the middle part of the depression, and an I-shaped crack appeared at this ridge due to the impact of the wheels. This process eventually led to two-lung-shaped mature squats, typically with a Y-shaped crack. The findings of this paper provide insight into the formation of rail squats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rolling contact fatigue (RCF) defects are associated with complex crack networks at the subsurface. A computed tomographic (CT) scanning technique has been developed to reconstruct the 3D geometry of the RCF cracks in the railhead. Sample rails having squats of different severities were taken from the Dutch railway network. Four specimens of different sizes were prepared and investigated with the CT scanner. The detailed procedures of the CT experiment and post-processing work were described. A sequence of high-quality X-ray images was collected during each scan. These 2D images were combined to construct the 3D visualization of the specimen. Various image processing tools were applied to extract and rebuild the internal crack geometries, thus allowing the crack networks to be differentiated from the bulk steel. For validation, the CT results were compared with metallographic observations of the rail surface for all the defects and the vertical section when needed. Discussions were made regarding the proper size of the rail samples and severity of the squats. According to the results, CT allows for a 3D visualization of RCF defects, providing high-quality data on the geometry of the internal cracks. By choosing the appropriate settings and specimen size, CT could accurately reconstruct the squat cracks at different growth stages. This research shows the potential of the CT technique as an intermediate detection and characterization tool among the methods for detecting macro cracks and those for characterizing micro/nano cracks. Finally, a practical specimen design and a detailed scanning procedure are proposed, based on the CT experiments performed in this research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A field sample of rail steel was metallurgically examined to characterize its rolling contact fatigue (RCF) damage. In addition to the well-known white etching layer (WEL), a possible different type of surface modification layer was identified in parallel. The layer has some similar features as the WEL but exhibits a significantly different etching response to 3 vol% Nital etchant. After etching, the new layer exhibits a brown color under the same light reflection. This layer was named as “brown etching layer” (BEL) to distinguish it from the WEL. Similar to the WEL, cracks are observed to be closely related to the BEL. The cracks are found to penetrate deeper than those initiated by the WEL reported in existing publications. Further, they are found to propagate downwards without branching, which may eventually cause rail fracture. Although its formation mechanism is not yet clear, WEL has been considered by some authors in the literature as a possible RCF initiation source. It is therefore of critical importance to understand the characteristics of the BEL and its formation mechanism. This may also lead to better understanding of the formation mechanism of the WEL. To this end, microstructural features of the BEL were studied using micro-hardness tests, optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The BEL was found to be distinctly softer than the WEL and lamella-type features are found within the BEL. The microstructural features of the BEL were compared with the WEL reported in the literature. Finally, the formation mechanism of the fatigue damage was discussed based on the comparison, observations and material characterization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We compared the failure of railway thermite welds through real field-testing. • We simulated the dynamic impact force induced by the weld geometry. • We reported the progression of the surface hardness of welds in track condition. • We discussed the noticed failures; wear and cracks. This paper details the field-testing approach and results of thermite welds used in railway applications. Rail steels made from R260 grades are welded by two different processes: the standard process according to the European standards, and a recent technology. Welds are introduced in the same testing location to ensure comparable loading conditions in the aim of studying their degradation behaviours. The total testing-period is 6 months. During the in-service period, the surface hardness of the running band, in the welded area, is recurrently measured. For an accurate assessment of field results, a vehicle/track interaction (VTI) model evaluated the expected dynamic loads induced by the initial vertical irregularities. The simulations show that the highest dynamic load at the wheel/rail contact happens at the location of the maximum absolute gradient, in accordance with previous research. Particularly, dipped welds show relatively high dynamic forces inducing a high loss of the transversal profile. In respect of the field results, the comparison of initial and final surface hardness indicates a significant increase for 'ALFONS' welds over the welded areas. Additionally, all welds depicted a cyclic increase and decrease of the running band hardness. This result is discussed according to the ratcheting susceptibility of welds and eventual wear progression. For a testing-period of 10 weeks, the gauge corner of one 'ALFONS' weld developed a crack. The assessment of the longitudinal profiles revealed changes of the vertical irregularities that may modify the dynamic loads, and further the rolling contact fatigue mechanisms and degradation rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Nowadays squats are a severe rolling contact problem on some railways. The root causes of it are not yet clear. From railway operation and maintenance points of view, root causes have to be known so that effective maintenance policies and plans can be made based on measurements and prediction. In the present work first a correlation analysis is performed based on measured data and field observations, and then a relation between squat occurrence and some parameters of the vehicle–track system is identified. Subsequently a transient finite element model of vehicle–track interaction is built up to analyze the contact forces and the resulting stresses and strains. The numerical results show good correspondence with observed phenomena at squats, and suggest certain relation between squat development and some eigen frequencies of the coupled vehicle–track system. A squat growth process is accordingly postulated. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This study evaluates the degradation of wheels and rails at railway crossings. The evaluation method is composed of 1) finite element simulation of dynamic wheel/crossing interaction and 2) multi-criteria analysis of wheel/rail degradation in terms of yield behavior, rolling contact fatigue (RCF) and wear. With the aid of this method, we conducted a case study identifying the proper yield strength of rail steel material for a 54E1-1:9 crossing under a specified traffic condition. The case study indicates that the wear of contact bodies is more sensitive to train speed compared with yield and RCF; the increase of rail yield strength suppresses rail degradation while exacerbating wheel degradation; and rail yield strength in the range of 500–600 MPa is preferred to achieve a good trade-off between the wheel and rail degradations. • A method is proposed to evaluate the degradation of wheels and rails at railway crossings. • The method uses finite element simulation and multi-criteria analysis. • Wheel/rail degradation is evaluated in terms of yield behavior, rolling contact fatigue (RCF) and wear. • A case study is conducted to identify the proper yield strength of rail steel material for a 54E1-1:9 crossing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]