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• The metagenomics study revealed the presence of an abundance of phyla Proteobacteria and Acidobacteria, known for regulating biogeochemical and nutrient cycling that enhances plant growth and promotes plant-soil beneficial interactions. • About 86% of culturable bacteria have multiple plant growth-promoting attributes. • PGPR FS2 retains its plant growth-promoting potential under varied ranges of temperature (4–50 °C). • PGPR FS2 significantly enhanced the production of large-sized saffron corms making it a suitable candidate as a biostimulant for the enhancement of saffron production in the non-traditional area of Himachal Pradesh - India. In India, saffron (Crocus sativus) cultivation is being extensively promoted in non-traditional areas mainly in Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. In this regard, the availability of good quality planting material (large corms) is a major limitation. Hence, efforts were made to increase the production of daughter corms in farmers' fields through the application of thermotolerant PGPR FS2 which could retain its growth-promoting potential over a wide temperature regime. The bacterial community was assessed through metagenomic approach. The PGPR FS2 was isolated from the bacterial community associated with the saffron rhizosphere. Stringent screening processes were adopted to select appropriate PGPR to successfully produce bigger-size saffron corms which are of economic importance. The study highlights the positive role of Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) in promoting the commercial cultivation of saffron in nontraditional areas of HP India through organic argopractice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Saffron is a permanent plant and one of the products of the eastern part of Iran, its onion can grow between 5 and 7 years, and this causes a change in the characteristics of the soil, which is very suitable for the environment. On the other hand, due to its high economic efficiency, in recent years, many activities have been carried out by relevant organizations such as Agriculture Jihad Organization (AJO) to promote its cultivation in cultivable areas. However, despite this planning and promotional activities, its cultivation has not yet been welcomed in some areas. Based on this, the purpose of this study was to explain the effects of saffron cultivation in the Mukhtar region of Boyerahmad County located in southwestern of Iran. Materials and Methods: The purpose of this research was to explain the effects of saffron cultivation in the Mukhtar region of Boyerahmad County, for this purpose, a causal-comparative research method was used. With consultation from relevant experts, including the Provincial Agricultural Jihad Organization, the Agricultural Jihad Service Center of Southern Sarroud area, two villages named Mukhtar and Firouzabad, chosen as the villages accepted and non-accepted saffron cultivation respectively. After that, according to Kerjcie and Morgan's sampling table, 235 households were selected as a research sample, and then simple random sampling with proportional assignment were used to determine the study participants. To collect the data, a researcher-constructed questionnaire was used, and to determine the validity of the different parts of the questionnaire, the face validity method with the opinion of the relevant experts and previous research, as well as successive corrections and revisions were used. Finally, to determine the reliability of the Likert scale, Cronbach's alpha was used. Cronbach's alpha coefficient scores indicated the optimality of the questionnaire. Descriptive and inferential statistical techniques such as mean, standard deviation, paired t-test, independent t-test and covariance analysis were used to analyze quantitative data and test hypotheses. Data processing was done using SPSS software version 21 in the Windows environment. Results and Discussion: Overall, the findings of the research showed positive economic, social and environmental effects of saffron cultivation in Mukhtar village (accepting saffron cultivation) compared to Firouzabad village (not accepting saffron cultivation). In order to be almost sure that these improvements in Mukhtar village were due to the cultivation of saffron cropping, covariance analysis was used. According to the obtained results, it can be stated that the increase and improvement in development status of the study area (including economic, social and environmental aspects) in the village accepting saffron cultivation compared to the village not accepting saffron cultivation, was the result of cultivation of the mentioned product. Other findings of the research showed that the economic effects have improved by 36% through factors such as increasing the amount of savings, more suitable sales of the product than the past, reducing the cost of planting the product, etc. Also, the social effects have improved by 41% in terms of factors such as satisfaction and welcome of buyers, creation of cooperatives, active participation in training classes, etc. In addition to these, environmental effects, through factors such as less use of fertilizers and chemical poisons, less use of underground water, etc., as a result of saffron cultivation, there has been a 23% improvement and development in the region. Conclusion: In general, and according to the results of the research, the cultivation of saffron in the studied area has improved the development of the total effects about 30%. Also, the results showed that the greatest effect of saffron cultivation was in the social scope and the least effect was in the environmental scope. Conflict of Interest: The authors declare no potential conflict of interest related to the work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using Grounded Theory methodology, this research was carried out with aim of explaining cooperative-based social entrepreneurship in the form of saffron cultivation chain in rural areas of Golestan province. In order to collect qualitative field data, a semi-structured deep interview was used. The research target group included those stakeholders involved in the development of saffron cultivation in the Tilabad watershed of Azadshahr County of Golestan province. Purposefully, to select the interviewees as key informants, the reputational sampling technique in the first stage and snowballing sampling in the second stage were used. The sample size and data collection process continued to the level of theoretical saturation or usefulness threshold of available information and 22 people were interviewed, totally. The process of data analysis consisted of a three-step chain of open, axial, and selective coding. Nvivo10 QSR software was used to extract the concept map of the codes. The research findings were summarized in the form of a paradigm model of cooperative-based social entrepreneurship. This model was formed from five components: causal conditions (demographic contexts, socio-economic constraints, agricultural-based livelihoods, and economic incentives towards income generation), contextual conditions (capacities and emerging challenges), intervening conditions (intervening agents, interventions, and intervention consequences), strategies (development of saffron value chain and serial entrepreneurship), and consequences (job and income diversification to achieve livelihood sustainability, the transformation of production arrangements based on the transition from independent family farming systems to the cooperative production system, increasing socio-economic resilience and in general, the realization of an entrepreneurial rural community).

This paper presents an integrated Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) imagery system and artificial intelligence-based smart farming for saffron cultivation. This work is about monitoring the growth of saffron flowers through UAV imagery every week or month during the pre-harvesting time while the percentage of the covered area by leaf and saffron flowers is calculated. This is crucial for predicting saffron growing areas over cultivated regions. From the vertical viewing of UAV imagery from above, it is problematic from the bird's eye perspective to identify the particular saffron-growing areas of things, so the multi-class classification of flowers (subjects) recognition system is proposed. So, the implementation of this work is divided into four phases. The first two phases (Phase 1 and Phase 2) are about the algorithms for Saffron growing region detections and predictions using the modified You Only Look Once (YOLO) higher version model followed by statistical analysis based region corner detections. The outcomes of the first two phases are used to form a database of saffron flowers with different scales, orientations, and deformations. This is further used to build a two-class classification model in the third phase (Phase 3) that discriminates saffron vs. non-saffron flowers. In the fourth phase, the two-class classification model is extended to a multi-class flower recognition model for recognizing 900 flower images database available in the largest social media website dedicated exclusively to gardening in the Phase 4. Extensive experiments are conducted, and the performances are compared with some existing state-of-the-art methods that show the superiority of the proposed system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since saffron is a triploid crop, it does not generate seed when selfed or crossed and is passed down through the generations by daughter corms produced from the mother corms. As a result, agro-technology development is the only viable alternative for bringing this crop to its full potential. Saffron does not have any specific habitat preferences, as evidenced by discovering numerous unknown saffron farmed areas during the current study. The plant grows as a mixed crop under apple (Malus domestica Borkh), almond (Prunus amygdalus Batsch.), populus (Populus alba L.), and walnut (Juglans regia L.) trees, as well as in plains, undulated soils, hills, and rice fields. It can be found growing between 1585 and 2050 m above sea level. Different agro-techniques were standardized, among which compost soil (compost 250 gms per pot with 2 kgs of soil; 500 gms per tray with 4 kgs of soil; 10 kgs per bed) was found to be best for early flower production. Soil and farmyard manure (1:3), UDP 0.25 gms/pot (N-115.511+ K130.952+P-58.496 mg), soil DAP 650 mg/2 kg of soil (@P = 152.0899 mg), soil MOP 350 mg/2 kg (@ K = 183.37 mg) of soil was preeminent of procured in vitro raised cormlets in terms of their sprouting and survival of shoots. Corm density was also checked in the offseason of the crop, with growth activity of only saffron corms. Significant negative correlation was recorded with r = 0.82; n = 100; P ≤ 0.001. But the reverse trend was observed in the crop's growing season when most de-weeding and field preparations are accomplished. The study will benefit people in near future as it emphasized the imperative proofs and picture of saffron cultivation in Kashmir valley, reflects the realities of saffron cultivation and trounces the earlier myths.

Background: Social health is defined as the individual’s ability to effectively and efficiently play social roles without hurting other people. It is the examination of an individual’s activities and status in society. Saffron cultivation, given its special properties, such as teamwork, cooperation, and social correlation, plays a major role in social health. Thus, the current study was done to compare the social health components among the farmers in saffron villages and the others in South Khorasan Province. Methods: The current study was applied and comparative. The statistical population included the farmers in saffron villages and the others in South Khorasan Province in 2018. The sample consisted of 550 farmers (275 producing saffron and 275 producing other plants) based on the Cochran formula who were selected through multistage sampling. The tool used to collect the data was Keyes’s standard Social Well-being Questionnaire (2004), consisting of 28 questions. After collecting the questionnaires, the data were analyzed using SPSS v. 23 and an independent t-test at a significance level of P

Background: Social health is defined as the individual’s ability to effectively and efficiently play social roles without hurting other people. It is the examination of an individual’s activities and status in society. Saffron cultivation, given its special properties, such as teamwork, cooperation, and social correlation, plays a major role in social health. Thus, the current study was done to compare the social health components among the farmers in saffron villages and the others in South Khorasan Province. Methods: The current study was applied and comparative. The statistical population included the farmers in saffron villages and the others in South Khorasan Province in 2018. The sample consisted of 550 farmers (275 producing saffron and 275 producing other plants) based on the Cochran formula who were selected through multistage sampling. The tool used to collect the data was Keyes’s standard Social Well-being Questionnaire (2004), consisting of 28 questions. After collecting the questionnaires, the data were analyzed using SPSS v. 23 and an independent t-test at a significance level of P<0.05. Results: There was a significant difference between the villagers planting saffron and other plants regarding their social health levels (P<0.000). The obtained t-value for social health, as a dependent variable, was 15.47. The obtained t-value for all the aspects of social health was higher than the acceptable t-value (P<0.05). Conclusion: The results showed that saffron villages had higher social solidarity, compared to other plants. Because cooperation and collaboration are necessary for different stages of saffron production, social cohesion is naturally reinforced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil fungi strongly influence ecosystem structure and functioning, playing a key role in many ecological services as decomposers, plant mutualists and pathogens. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) establish mutualistic symbiotic associations with plant roots and act as biofertilizers by enhancing plant nutrients and water uptake. Information about the AMF association with Crocus sativus L. (saffron) and their impact on crop performances and spice quality has been increasing in recent years. Instead, there is still little data on the biodiversity of soil microbial communities associated with this crop in the Alpine environments. The aims of this study were to investigate the fungal communities of two Alpine experimental sites cultivated with saffron, and to rank the relative impact of two AMF inocula, applied to soil as single species (R = Rhizophagus intraradices, C.Walker & A. Schüßler) or a mixture of two species (M = R. intraradices and Funneliformis mosseae, C. Walker & A. Schüßler), on the resident fungal communities which might be influenced in their diversity and composition. We used Illumina MiSeq metabarcoding on nuclear ribosomal ITS2 region to characterize the fungal communities associated to Crocus sativus cultivation in two fields, located in the municipalities of Saint Christophe (SC) and Morgex (MG), (Aosta Valley, Italy), treated or not with AMF inocula and sampled for two consecutive years (Y1; Y2). Data analyses consistently indicated that Basidiomycota were particularly abundant in both sites and sampling years (Y1 and Y2). Significant differences in the distribution of fungal taxa assemblages at phylum and class levels between the two sites were also found. The main compositional differences consisted in significant abundance changes of OTUs belonging to Dothideomycetes and Leotiomycetes (Ascomycota), Agaricomycetes and Tremellomycetes (Basidiomycota), Mortierellomycetes and Mucoromycetes. Further differences concerned OTUs, of other classes, significantly represented only in the first or second year of sampling. Concerning Glomeromycota, the most represented genus was Claroideoglomus always detected in both sites and years. Other AMF genera such as Funneliformis, Septoglomus and Microdominikia, were retrieved only in MG site. Results highlighted that neither sites nor inoculation significantly impacted Alpine saffron-field fungal communities; instead, the year of sampling had the most appreciable influence on the resident communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saffron is a strategic product. It is necessary to manage the programming principles in order to estimate acreage and production. Therefore, the speed and accuracy of such assessments is very important. Using remote sensing techniques for providing updated data and high functionality as well as the possibility of studying a wide range of image analyses with an acceptable precision can help in the assessment. In the present research, the area under cultivation of saffron in the city of Torbat Heydarieh was evaluated using Landsat 8 sensor data. After applying the primary processing on satellite images with using conventional techniques, satellite imagery processing including false color band combination, principal component analysis, vegetation index (NDVI, SAVI, EVI, DVI, RVI and TSAVI) and supervised classification of land under saffron cultivation were identified. Map production was done due to the fact that the earth was assessed via GPS in order to assess the classification. Kappa coefficient and overall accuracy were %88 and %98, respectively. The area under cultivation of saffron in this study was estimated to be 19503.4572 hectares. The results indicated that Landsat 8 satellite images have a high potential for rapid separation and identification of the area under cultivation of saffron in the region with relatively good accuracy and are appropriate tools to be used on a regional scale.

Soil fungi strongly influence ecosystem structure and functioning, playing a key role in many ecological services as decomposers, plant mutualists and pathogens. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) establish mutualistic symbiotic associations with plant roots and act as biofertilizers by enhancing plant nutrients and water uptake. Information about the AMF association with Crocus sativus L. (saffron) and their impact on crop performances and spice quality has been increasing in recent years. Instead, there is still little data on the biodiversity of soil microbial communities associated with this crop in the Alpine environments. The aims of this study were to investigate the fungal communities of two Alpine experimental sites cultivated with saffron, and to rank the relative impact of two AMF inocula, applied to soil as single species (R = Rhizophagus intraradices, C. Walker & A. Schüßler) or a mixture of two species (M = R. intraradices and Funneliformis mosseae, C. Walker & A. Schüßler), on the resident fungal communities which might be influenced in their diversity and composition. We used Illumina MiSeq metabarcoding on nuclear ribosomal ITS2 region to characterize the fungal communities associated to Crocus sativus cultivation in two fields, located in the municipalities of Saint Christophe (SC) and Morgex (MG), (Aosta Valley, Italy), treated or not with AMF inocula and sampled for two consecutive years (Y1; Y2). Data analyses consistently indicated that Basidiomycota were particularly abundant in both sites and sampling years (Y1 and Y2). Significant differences in the distribution of fungal taxa assemblages at phylum and class levels between the two sites were also found. The main compositional differences consisted in significant abundance changes of OTUs belonging to Dothideomycetes and Leotiomycetes (Ascomycota), Agaricomycetes and Tremellomycetes (Basidiomycota), Mortierellomycetes and Mucoromycetes. Further differences concerned OTUs, of other classes, significantly represented only in the first or second year of sampling. Concerning Glomeromycota, the most represented genus was Claroideoglomus always detected in both sites and years. Other AMF genera such as Funneliformis, Septoglomus and Microdominikia, were retrieved only in MG site. Results highlighted that neither sites nor inoculation significantly impacted Alpine saffron-field fungal communities; instead, the year of sampling had the most appreciable influence on the resident communities.

The maintenance of natural forest and forest dwellers welfare are vital to biodiversity conservation. For this purpose, introducing of Saffron cultivation as innovation in agricultural activities outside of the forest could be a key factor. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to determine the agronomic suitability and the appropriate spatial pattern for the Saffron cultivation. Geographic Information System (GIS) was used to identify suitable areas for Saffron cultivation in the North of Khorasan Province, Iran. Relevant environment components such as climate factors (temperature and rainfall), topography (Digital Elevation Model and slope) and land-use were considered. The results of this study were specially looking for potential cultivation areas for expanding Saffron and to develop suitable map for Saffron cultivation. We found that 69% (1887 ha) of agricultural land have currently suitable for Saffron cultivation in North of Khorasan, Iran. The map of land suitability for cultivation of Saffron can be practiced for improving livelihood and forest conservation.

Saffron is a strategic product. It is necessary to manage the programming principles in order to estimate acreage and production. Therefore, the speed and accuracy of such assessments is very important. Using remote sensing techniques for providing updated data and high functionality as well as the possibility of studying a wide range of image analyses with an acceptable precision can help in the assessment. In the present research, the area under cultivation of saffron in the city of Torbat Heydarieh was evaluated using Landsat 8 sensor data. After applying the primary processing on satellite images with using conventional techniques, satellite imagery processing including false color band combination, principal component analysis, vegetation index (NDVI, SAVI, EVI, DVI, RVI and TSAVI) and supervised classification of land under saffron cultivation were identified. Map production was done due to the fact that the earth was assessed via GPS in order to assess the classification. Kappa coefficient and overall accuracy were %88 and %98, respectively. The area under cultivation of saffron in this study was estimated to be 19503.4572 hectares. The results indicated that Landsat 8 satellite images have a high potential for rapid separation and identification of the area under cultivation of saffron in the region with relatively good accuracy and are appropriate tools to be used on a regional scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]