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The central San Andreas Fault in California is known as a creeping fault, however recent studies have shown that it may be accumulating a slip deficit and thus its seismogenic potential should be seriously considered. We conducted laboratory friction experiments measuring time-dependent frictional strengthening (healing) on fault zone and wall rock samples recovered during drilling at the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD), located near the southern edge of the creeping section and in the direct vicinity of three repeating microearthquake clusters. We find that for hold times of up to 3000 s, frictional healing follows a log-linear dependence on hold time and that the healing rate is very low for a sample of the actively shearing fault core, consistent with previous results. However, considering longer hold times up to ∼350,000 s, the healing rate accelerates such that the data for all samples are better described by a power law relation. In general, samples having a higher content of phyllosilicate minerals exhibit low log-linear healing rates, and the notably clay-rich fault zone sample also exhibits strong power-law healing when longer hold times are included. Our data suggest that weak faults, such as the creeping section of the San Andreas Fault, can accumulate interseismic shear stress more rapidly than expected from previous friction data. Using the power-law dependence of frictional healing on hold time, calculations of recurrence interval and stress drop based on our data accurately match observations of discrete creep events and repeating M w = 2 earthquakes on the San Andreas Fault. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We compare frictional strengths in the temperature range 25–250 °C of fault gouge from SAFOD (CDZ and SDZ) with quartzofeldspathic wall rocks typical of the central creeping section of the San Andreas Fault (Great Valley sequence and Franciscan Complex). The Great Valley and Franciscan samples have coefficients of friction, μ > 0.35 at all experimental conditions. Strength is unchanged between 25° and 150 °C, but μ increases at higher temperatures, exceeding 0.50 at 250 °C. Both samples are velocity strengthening at room temperature but show velocity-weakening behavior beginning at 150 °C and stick-slip motion at 250 °C. These rocks, therefore, have the potential for unstable seismic slip at depth. The CDZ gouge, with a high saponite content, is weak (μ = 0.09–0.17) and velocity strengthening in all experiments, and μ decreases at temperatures above 150 °C. Behavior of the SDZ is intermediate between the CDZ and wall rocks: μ < 0.2 and does not vary with temperature. Although saponite is probably not stable at depths greater than ∼3 km, substitution of the frictionally similar minerals talc and Mg-rich chlorite for saponite at higher temperatures could potentially extend the range of low strength and stable slip down to the base of the seismogenic zone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The San Andreas Fault is one of the most studied earthquake-generating structures on Earth, but the reason that some sections are anomalously weak, and creep without apparent seismicity, remains poorly understood. Here, we present results from nanoscale (FIB–SEM) 3D microstructural observations of weak (friction coefficient of 0.095) SAFOD clay fault gouge containing serpentinite clasts, recovered from the active Central Deforming Zone at ∼2.7 km vertical depth. Our nanoscale observations confirm that frictional slip and extreme weakness occur via deformation of smectite clay that forms a shear fabric within the fault zone. We infer that creep initiates by fracture-controlled, substrate growth of oriented Mg-smectite on R, P and Y shears, followed by clay smearing and ductile flow of an evolving and expanding clay matrix. At the crystal-scale, pervasive sliding occurs along hydrated smectite interlayers and surfaces occupied by exchangeable Mg- and Ca-ions, with slip typically spaced at 3–5 lattice layers apart. We conclude that the strength and seismic behaviour of major tectonic faults at shallow crustal levels evolves as clay fabric develops with accumulated fault slip. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Creep in the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD) drillhole is localized to two foliated gouges, the central deforming zone (CDZ) and southwest deforming zone (SDZ). The gouges consist of porphyroclasts of serpentinite and sedimentary rock dispersed in a foliated matrix of Mg-smectite clays that formed as a result of shearing-enhanced reactions between the serpentinite and quartzofeldspathic rocks. The CDZ takes up most of the creep and exhibits differences in mineralogy and texture from the SDZ that are attributable to its higher shearing rate. In addition, a ∼0.2-m-wide sector of the CDZ at its northeastern margin (NE-CDZ) is identical to the SDZ and may represent a gradient in creep rate across the CDZ. The SDZ and NE-CDZ have lower clay contents and larger porphyroclasts than most of the CDZ, and they contain veinlets and strain fringes of calcite in the gouge matrix not seen elsewhere in the CDZ. Matrix clays in the SDZ and NE-CDZ are saponite and corrensite, whereas the rest of the CDZ lacks corrensite. Saponite is younger than corrensite, reflecting clay crystallization under declining temperatures, and clays in the more actively deforming portions of the CDZ have better equilibrated to the lower-temperature conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD) scientific borehole near Parkfield, California crosses two actively creeping shear zones at a depth of 2.7 km. Core samples retrieved from these active strands consist of a foliated, Mg-clay-rich gouge containing porphyroclasts of serpentinite and sedimentary rock. The adjacent damage zone and country rocks are comprised of variably deformed, fine-grained sandstones, siltstones, and mudstones. We conducted laboratory tests to measure the permeability of representative samples from each structural unit at effective confining pressures, P e up to the maximum estimated in situ P e of 120 MPa. Permeability values of intact samples adjacent to the creeping strands ranged from 10−18 to 10−21 m2 at P e = 10 MPa and decreased with applied confining pressure to 10−20–10−22 m2 at 120 MPa. Values for intact foliated gouge samples (10−21–6 × 10−23 m2 over the same pressure range) were distinctly lower than those for the surrounding rocks due to their fine-grained, clay-rich character. Permeability of both intact and crushed-and-sieved foliated gouge measured during shearing at P e ≥ 70 MPa ranged from 2 to 4 × 10−22 m2 in the direction perpendicular to shearing and was largely insensitive to shear displacement out to a maximum displacement of 10 mm. The weak, actively-deforming foliated gouge zones have ultra-low permeability, making the active strands of the San Andreas Fault effective barriers to cross-fault fluid flow. The low matrix permeability of the San Andreas Fault creeping zones and adjacent rock combined with observations of abundant fractures in the core over a range of scales suggests that fluid flow outside of the actively-deforming gouge zones is probably fracture dominated. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: With optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and synchrotron X-ray diffraction measurements, we analyzed clay microfabrics in ultracataclastic/gouge and cataclastic core samples obtained from the main bore hole of the San Andreas Fault observatory at depth (SAFOD). The analysis reveals a significant contrast between weak clay fabrics observed in the core samples with synchrotron X-ray fabric measurements and strong degree of preferred alignment for clay particles documented with the optical microscope. TEM and SEM observations also show distinct zones of locally aligned and randomly oriented clay minerals. The lack of a strong fabric may be attributed to randomly oriented matrix sheet silicates dominating the fault rocks. The presence of weak fabrics in intensely strained ultracataclasites/fault gouges is attributed to 1) newly formed clay minerals that grew in many orientations, 2) folded and kinked clay minerals, and 3) clay particles that are wrapped around grains. In addition, the locally aligned clay particles may act as barriers to fluid flow, which in turn decrease porosity, expel intergranular pore fluids, and consequently, may increase fluid pressure. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The San Andreas Fault zone in central California accommodates tectonic strain by stable slip and microseismic activity. We study microstructural controls of strength and deformation in the fault using core samples provided by the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD) including gouge corresponding to presently active shearing intervals in the main borehole. The methods of study include high-resolution optical and electron microscopy, X-ray fluorescence mapping, X-ray powder diffraction, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, white light interferometry, and image processing. The fault zone at the SAFOD site consists of a strongly deformed and foliated core zone that includes 2–3 m thick active shear zones, surrounded by less deformed rocks. Results suggest deformation and foliation of the core zone outside the active shear zones by alternating cataclasis and pressure solution mechanisms. The active shear zones, considered zones of large-scale shear localization, appear to be associated with an abundance of weak phases including smectite clays, serpentinite alteration products, and amorphous material. We suggest that deformation along the active shear zones is by a granular-type flow mechanism that involves frictional sliding of microlithons along phyllosilicate-rich Riedel shear surfaces as well as stress-driven diffusive mass transfer. The microstructural data may be interpreted to suggest that deformation in the active shear zones is strongly displacement-weakening. The fault creeps because the velocity strengthening weak gouge in the active shear zones is being sheared without strong restrengthening mechanisms such as cementation or fracture sealing. Possible mechanisms for the observed microseismicity in the creeping segment of the SAF include local high fluid pressure build-ups, hard asperity development by fracture-and-seal cycles, and stress build-up due to slip zone undulations. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Magnesium-rich clayey gouge similar to that comprising the two actively creeping strands of the San Andreas Fault in drill core from the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD) has been identified in a nearby outcrop of serpentinite within the fault zone at Nelson Creek. Each occurrence of the gouge consists of porphyroclasts of serpentinite and sedimentary rocks dispersed in a fine-grained, foliated matrix of Mg-rich smectitic clays. The clay minerals in all three gouges are interpreted to be the product of fluid-assisted, shear-enhanced reactions between quartzofeldspathic wall rocks and serpentinite that was tectonically entrained in the fault from a source in the Coast Range Ophiolite. We infer that the gouge at Nelson Creek connects to one or both of the gouge zones in the SAFOD core, and that similar gouge may occur at depths in between. The special significance of the outcrop is that it preserves the early stages of mineral reactions that are greatly advanced at depth, and it confirms the involvement of serpentinite and the Mg-rich phyllosilicate minerals that replace it in promoting creep along the central San Andreas Fault. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: We characterize the lithology and structure of the spot core obtained in 2007 during Phase 3 drilling of the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD) in order to determine the composition, structure, and deformation processes of the fault zone at 3km depth where creep and microseismicity occur. A total of approximately 41m of spot core was taken from three separate sections of the borehole; the core samples consist of fractured arkosic sandstones and shale west of the SAF zone (Pacific Plate) and sheared fine-grained sedimentary rocks, ultrafine black fault-related rocks, and phyllosilicate-rich fault gouge within the fault zone (North American Plate). The fault zone at SAFOD consists of a broad zone of variably damaged rock containing localized zones of highly concentrated shear that often juxtapose distinct protoliths. Two zones of serpentinite-bearing clay gouge, each meters-thick, occur at the two locations of aseismic creep identified in the borehole on the basis of casing deformation. The gouge primarily is comprised of Mg-rich clays, serpentinite (lizardite±chrysotile) with notable increases in magnetite, and Ni-Cr-oxides/hydroxides relative to the surrounding host rock. The rocks surrounding the two creeping gouge zones display a range of deformation including fractured protolith, block-in-matrix, and foliated cataclasite structure. The blocks and clasts predominately consist of sandstone and siltstone embedded in a clay-rich matrix that displays a penetrative scaly fabric. Mineral alteration, veins and fracture-surface coatings are present throughout the core, and reflect a long history of syn-deformation, fluid-rock reaction that contributes to the low-strength and creep in the meters-thick gouge zones. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The drilling of a deep borehole across the actively creeping Parkfield segment of the San Andreas Fault Zone (SAFZ), California, and collection of core materials permit direct geological study of fault zone processes at 2–3 km depth. The three drill cores sample both host and fault rocks and pass through two currently active, narrow (1–2 m wide) shear zones enclosed within a broader (ca. 240 m wide) region of inactive foliated gouges. The host rocks preserve primary sedimentary features and are cut by numerous minor faults and small, mainly calcite-filled veins. The development of Fe-enriched smectitic phyllosilicate networks following cataclasis is prevalent in the presently inactive foliated gouges of the main fault zone and in minor faults cutting clay-rich host rocks. Calcite, anhydrite and minor smectitic phyllosilicate veins are interpreted to have formed due to local fluid overpressuring events prior to, synchronous with and after local gouge development. By contrast, the active shear zone gouges lack mineral veins (except as clasts) and contain numerous clasts of serpentinite. Markedly Mg-rich smectitic phyllosilicates are the dominant mineral phases here, suggesting that the fault zone fluids have interacted with the entrained serpentinites. We propose that weakening of the SAFZ down to depths of at least 3 km can be attributed to the pervasive development of interconnected networks of low friction smectitic phyllosilicates and to the operation of stress-induced solution-precipitation creep mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: With transmission electron microscopy (TEM) we observed nanometer-sized pores in four ultracataclastic and fractured core samples recovered from different depths of the main bore hole of the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD). Cutting of foils with a focused ion beam technique (FIB) allowed identifying porosity down to the nm scale. Between 40 and 50% of all pores could be identified as in-situ pores without any damage related to sample preparation. The total porosity estimated from TEM micrographs (1–5%) is comparable to the connected fault rock porosity (2.8–6.7%) estimated by pressure-induced injection of mercury. Permeability estimates for cataclastic fault rocks are 10−21–10−19 m2 and 10−17 m2 for the fractured fault rock. Porosity and permeability are independent of sample depth. TEM images reveal that the porosity is intimately linked to fault rock composition and associated with deformation. The TEM-estimated porosity of the samples increases with increasing clay content. The highest porosity was estimated in the vicinity of an active fault trace. The largest pores with an equivalent radius>200nm occur around large quartz and feldspar grains or grain-fragments while the smallest pores (equivalent radius<50nm) are typically observed in the extremely fine-grained matrix (grain size<1μm). Based on pore morphology we distinguish different pore types varying with fault rock fabric and alteration. The pores were probably filled with formation water and/or hydrothermal fluids at elevated pore fluid pressure, preventing pore collapse. The pore geometry derived from TEM observations and BET (Brunauer, Emmett and Teller) gas adsorption/desorption hysteresis curves indicates pore blocking effects in the fine-grained matrix. Observations of isolated pores in TEM micrographs and high pore body to pore throat ratios inferred from mercury injection suggest elevated pore fluid pressure in the low permeability cataclasites, reducing shear strength of the fault. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

A detailed mineralogical study is presented of the matrix of mudrocks sampled from spot coring at three key locations along the San Andreas Fault Observatory at depth (SAFOD) drill hole. The characteristics of authigenic illite–smectite (I–S) and chlorite–smectite (C–S) mixed-layer mineral clays indicate a deep diagenetic origin. A randomly ordered I–S mineral with ca. 20–25% smectite layers is one of the dominant authigenic clay species across the San Andreas Fault zone (sampled at 3,066 and 3,436 m measured depths/MD), whereas an authigenic illite with ca. 2–5% smectite layers is the dominant phase beneath the fault (sampled at 3,992 m MD). The most smectite-rich mixed-layered assemblage with the highest water content occurs in the actively deforming creep zone at ca. 3,300–3,353 m (true vertical depth of ca. 2.7 km), with I–S (70:30) and C–S (50:50). The matrix of all mudrock samples show extensive quartz and feldspar (both plagioclase and K-feldspar) dissolution associated with the crystallization of pore-filling clay minerals. However, the effect of rock deformation in the matrix appears only minor, with weak flattening fabrics defined largely by kinked and fractured mica grains. Adopting available kinetic models for the crystallization of I–S in burial sedimentary environments and the current borehole depths and thermal structure, the conditions and timing of I–S growth can be evaluated. Assuming a typical K+ concentration of 100–200 ppm for sedimentary brines, a present-day geothermal gradient of 35°C/km and a borehole temperature of ca. 112°C for the sampled depths, most of the I–S minerals can be predicted to have formed over the last 4–11 Ma and are probably still in equilibrium with circulating fluids. The exception to this simple burial pattern is the occurrence of the mixed layered phases with higher smectite content than predicted by the burial model. These minerals, which characterize the actively creeping section of the fault and local thin film clay coating on polished brittle slip surfaces, can be explained by the influence of either cooler fluids circulating along this segment of the fault or the flow of K+-depleted brines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]