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A cataclastic rock mass is a poor type of engineering geological rock mass. The determination of the shear failure characteristics and shear strengths of cataclastic rock masses can provide key basis for the design and construction of infrastructure. Physical model samples of a sandstone cataclastic rock mass were first produced by a combination of three-dimensional (3D) printing technology and manual pouring. Shear tests were conducted with respect to the shear stresses parallel to the trace line plane and perpendicular to the trace line plane of the cataclastic rock mass model. Based on an extensive analysis of the shear failure characteristic, shear stress evolution characteristic curve and shear strength. When the shear stress was parallel to the trace line plane, and when the rock block that was cut and confined by the trace line exhibited a significant tip, the end stress concentration effect of the cataclastic rock mass was more significant during the shear process with the anisotropy of the rock block increased. In addition, the shapes of the rock blocks that were confined and cut by the joints were the main influencing factors of the strength of the cataclastic rock mass. When the shear stress was perpendicular to the trace line plane, the structure of the rock wall was the main influencing factor of the deformation and failure process of the shear failure plane and the shear strength. The physical and mechanical properties of the shear failure plane of the cataclastic rock mass were found to be closely related to the joint–rock wall system characteristics of the cataclastic rock mass. Therefore, when determining the shear strength of cataclastic rock mass, the shape and combination form of the rock block, shear direction, and structural failure characteristics of the rock wall should be comprehensively considered during the shear process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Clusters of cataclastic deformation bands represent potential barriers or baffles to reservoir fluid flow, and their processes of formation remain debated. In this work, we rely on an integrated field study at seven sites to describe the extent of clusters, their morphology and their density of deformation as a function of several parameters: the tectonic loading, the burial depth of deformation, the Andersonian stress regime and the lithology of the sandstone. We perform porosity, sorting and grain shape analyses of the deformed material to improve the understanding of microscopic process of cluster development. In agreement with previous works on cataclastic deformation bands, our results reveal that the tectonic loading constrains the extent and the morphology of the clusters. Extensional tectonics favors the formation in normal-fault Andersonian regime of series of hundreds of meter long, rather thin and dense clusters, forming kilometer long networks associated with faults. We find that the formation of major slip-surfaces (faulting) can occur at any stage of cluster thickening. Contractional tectonics favors the formation of strike-slip clusters of medium-thickness, and more rarely the formation of tens of meter long, low-density, thick thrust clusters. The clusters formed in contractional tectonic settings are sparse. Since 15%–79% of the bands/slip-surface of the clusters have permeabilities close to or lower than 1 × 10 1 mD, and because clusters can have significant dimensions, they may be significant baffles, particularly in extensional tectonics. Our analysis of the porosity and shape evolution of the clasts with increasing deformation corroborates the hypothesis of strain hardening of the band by combined increase of cohesion and friction induced by the cataclasis. We propose that the variability of hardening associated with the variable packing and related cementation in specific parts of the deformed material controls the development and the morphology of the clusters as a function of the tectonic loading. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deformation bands have been extensively studied in sandstones, whereas far less is known about bands occurring in porous volcaniclastic rocks. Here we investigate spectacular outcrop exposures of late Miocene tuffaceous rocks in the Coastal Range of Taiwan, which host several deformation band types: (i) disaggregation-dominated, layer-bound, sub-vertically-dipping pure compaction bands (PCB); (ii) cataclastic, layer-bound, reverse-sense compactional shear bands (RCSB); and (iii) non-layer-bound and intensely cataclastic transverse-sense compactional shear bands (TCSB). RCSBs and TCSBs host discrete slip surfaces on individual bands. The bands formed in an overall compressive stress regime related to convergence of the Eurasian and Philippine Sea plates. PCBs and RCSBs formed first, whereas progressive burial caused a shift to a transverse stress state and formation of TCSBs. The occurrence of cataclasis in RCSBs but not PCBs is inferred to be shear-driven, rather than confining-pressure-driven. Our findings suggest that cataclasis in deformation bands in volcaniclastic rocks is bimodal. Shear localization preferentially affects weak glass shards, causing intense comminution of volcanic glass. Feldspar, pyroxene and amphibole phenocrysts are comparatively less crushed, and cataclasis is strongly controlled by mineralogic cleavage planes. We conclude that increasing glass content reduces shear resistance, and that deformation bands in volcaniclastic rocks effectively exhibit a strain-weakening behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cataclastic deformation bands on the Waterpocket Fold in southern Utah contain cross-cutting joints that terminate at the contacts between the deformation bands and surrounding sandstone. The mechanical contrast between sandstone host rock and stronger deformation bands is analogous to inter-bedded weak and strong layers in a sedimentary sequence, a situation known to result in joints preferentially forming in the stronger layers with joints perpendicular to layer boundaries. Deformation bands in the field area represent conjugate strike-slip shear zones, many with internal Riedel shear geometry, creating a three-dimensional network of mechanically strong zones in variable orientations. Joint attitudes were found to vary systematically as a function of deformation band strike, and the angle between each deformation band and its associated joints is perpendicular to neither the deformation band nor the far-field extension direction. Field observations are confirmed by 2D finite element models showing that local stress reorientation at boundaries between layers affects the mechanics of jointing. The stiffness contrast results in conditions for initiating joints contained in the deformation band, and also results in variable joint orientations in deformation bands with strike orientations oblique to the far-field extension direction. A higher stiffness contrast results in a greater angle between deformation band strike and band-contained joint strike. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Improving the prediction of sub-seismic structures and their petrophysical properties is essential for realistic characterization of deformed sandstone reservoirs. In the present paper, we describe permeability contrasts induced by cataclastic deformation bands and faults in porous sandstones (766 data synthesized from field examples and the literature). We also discuss the influence of several factors, including tectonic regime, presence of a fault, burial depth, host sandstone porosity, and grain size and sorting for their initiation and permeability. This analysis confirms that permeability decrease is as a function of grain-crushing intensity in bands. Permeability reduction ranges from very limited in crush-microbreccia of compaction bands to high permeability reduction in cataclasites and ultracataclasites of shear-dominated bands, band clusters and faults. Tectonic regime, and especially normal-fault regime, with its tendency to localize strain and generate faults, is identified as the most important factor, leading to the formation of cataclastic bands with high permeability contrasts. Moreover, moderate burial depth (1–3 km) favors cataclastic bands with high permeability contrasts with respect to the host sandstone. High porosity, coarse-grain size and good grain sorting can slightly amplify the permeability reductions recorded in bands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work is devoted to characterization of the deformation and strength properties of cataclastic sandstones. Before conducting mechanical tests, the physical properties were first examined. These sandstones are characterized by a loose damaged microstructure and poorly cemented contacts. Then, a series of mechanical tests including hydrostatic, uniaxial, and triaxial compression tests were performed to study the mechanical strength and deformation of the sandstones. The results obtained show nonlinear stress-strain responses. The initial microcracks are closed at hydrostatic stress of 2.6 MPa, and the uniaxial compressive strength is about 0.98 MPa. Under triaxial compression, there is a clear transition from volumetric compressibility to dilatancy and a strong dependency on confining pressure. Based on the experimental evidence, an elastoplastic model is proposed using a linear yield function and a nonassociated plastic potential. There is good agreement between numerical results and experimental data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study presents a qualitative and quantitative analysis of porosity in deformation bands by applying X-ray micro-computed tomography in conjunction with microstructural analysis. Samples of compactional cataclastic bands and shear compactional bands identified in Early Cretaceous aeolian sandstones of the Paraná Basin were analyzed. The application of X-ray micro-computed tomography expanded the view of features in the porous framework of each type of deformation band studied and provided information that are not clear or was not observable with optical microscopy. The compactional cataclastic bands and shear compactional bands differ in geometry, thickness, microstructures and, mainly, in the distribution, shape and orientation of the remaining pores. Porosity analysis was also performed by comparing values of porosity (total, open and closed pores) of the parental rock and the deformation band in each sample. Results of these analyses show a reduction of total porosity and open pores and therefore an increase in the amount of closed pores in all types of deformation bands in relation to parental rock. In addition, it is observed that changes in porosity characteristics are related to the effect of different deformation mechanisms that operated in each type of deformation band. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cataclastic deformation bands in porous sandstones present a potentially significant barrier or baffle to fluid flow because the bands form in complex networks of laterally extensive, tabular zones with permeability up to several orders of magnitude less than that of the sandstone host rock. Previous work suggests that in some geologic settings cataclastic deformation bands become systematically jointed in the subsurface. Calculations presented here demonstrate that under most realistic circumstances, volumetric flow rate across a jointed deformation band can equal or exceed discharge through an equivalent volume of host sandstone. Results indicate that jointed deformation bands are not significant barriers or baffles to fluid movement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cataclastic bands with intense cataclasis formed in phyllosilicate- and clay-rich poorly lithified sandstone have been identified and characterized for the first time. This study indicates that intense cataclasis could occur at shallow burial depth regardless of mineralogy of the rock at the time of deformation. The study was performed on a series of listric normal faults (displacement up to 10 m) in the Aghione Formation at Aleria Basin, Corsica, France. In-situ measurements of permeability show a reduction in permeability up to two orders of magnitude in the damage zone (cataclastic bands), while permeability increases along the slip surfaces. The slip surfaces make conduits to fluid flow, which is also confirmed by the field observations. The permeability and porosity decrease within cataclastic bands is in agreement with an increase in P-wave velocity measured on the band possibly due to compaction, introducing anisotropy to the rock. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Arrays of closely-spaced (approximately <70 mm) sub-parallel cataclastic deformation bands are common structures in deformed, high-porosity (∼10–35%) sandstones. The distribution of strain onto many small-displacement deformation bands is thought by some to result from strain-hardening of the cataclasite within individual bands. Examination of both normal and strike-slip faults with displacements ≤7 m from southeastern Utah, USA, and the North Island of New Zealand suggests, however, that clusters of deformation bands systematically develop at fault geometric irregularities (e.g., fault bends, steps, relays, intersections and zones of normal drag). The strain-hardening model does not account for clustering of deformation bands at fault geometric irregularities or the associated widespread coalescence of bands, and is not unequivocally demonstrated by post-peak macroscopic mechanical responses in laboratory rock deformation experiments. A geometric model is proposed in which individual bands within clusters develop sequentially due to migration of incremental shear strains at fault geometric irregularities as part of a slip localisation, asperity removal and strain weakening process. The geometric model, which does not require strain hardening of the fault rock, applies for the duration of faulting and a range of rock types in the brittle upper crust. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Conjugate cataclastic deformation bands cut unconsolidated sand and gravel at McKinleyville, California, and dip shallowly towards the north-northeast and south-southwest. The acute dihedral angle between the two sets of deformation bands is 47° and is bisected by the sub-horizontal, north-northeast directed incremental and finite shortening directions. Trishear models of fault propagation folding above the McKinleyville fault predict two sets of LNFE (lines of no finite elongation) that plunge steeply and shallowly to the south and north. These predictions are inconsistent with deformation band orientations and suggest that deformation bands did not form parallel to these LNFE. During plane strain, zero extension directions with acute dihedral angles of 47° develop when the dilatancy rate (dV/dε 1) is −4.3. Experimental dilatancy rates for Vosges sandstone (cohesion > 0) and unconsolidated Hostun sand suggest the deformation bands either developed parallel to zero extension directions or in accordance with the Mohr–Coulomb criterion, assuming initial porosities of 22% and 39%, respectively. An empirical relationship between dV/dε 1, relative density and mean stress suggests that dilatancy rates for Vosges sandstone overestimate dV/dε 1 at McKinleyville. Deformation bands at McKinleyville likely developed either in a Mohr–Coulomb orientation, or an intermediate orientation bounded by the Mohr–Coulomb (θ C ) and Roscoe (θ R ) angles. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Many of the earliest laboratory studies of the brittle-ductile transition were on porous rocks, with a focus on the evolution of failure mode from brittle faulting to cataclastic flow with increasing pressure. Recent advances in this area are reviewed. Porosity has been demonstrated to exert critical control on the brittle-ductile transition, and its phenomenology has two common attributes. Under low confinement, brittle faulting develops as a dilatant failure mode. Under high confinement, delocalized cataclasis is accompanied by shear-enhanced compaction and strain hardening. Plasticity models such as the cap and critical state models have been developed to describe such constitutive behaviors, and many aspects of the laboratory data on porous rock have been shown to be in basic agreement. Bifurcation analysis can be used in conjunction with a constitutive model to predict the onset of strain localization, which is in qualitative agreement with the laboratory data. However, recent studies have also underscored certain complexities in the inelastic behavior and failure mode. In some porous sandstones, compaction bands would develop as a localized failure mode intermediate between the end members of brittle faulting and cataclastic flow. In limestones (and selected sandstones) under relatively high confinement, cataclastic flow is accompanied first by shear-enhanced compaction which then evolves to dilatancy. Various techniques have been employed to characterize the microstructure and damage, which have elucidated the deformation mechanisms associated with the brittle-ductile transition. These observations have revealed a diversity of micromechanical processes, and fundamental differences were observed especially between sandstone and limestone with regard to inelastic compaction. Micromechanical models that have been formulated to describe these processes include the pore-emanated and sliding wing crack models in the brittle faulting regime, and the Hertzian fracture and cataclastic pore collapse models in the cataclastic flow regime. Numerical techniques based on the discrete element method have also been employed to simulate these processes. Comparison of the model predictions with laboratory and microstructural observations has provided useful insights into the mechanics of brittle-ductile transition in porous rock. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Understanding the impact of faults on fluid flow in the subsurface is important for the extraction of oil, gas and groundwater as well as the geological storage of waste products. We address two problems present in current industry-standard workflows for fault seal analysis that may lead to fault rocks not being represented adequately in computational fluid flow models. Firstly, fluid flow properties of fault rocks are often measured only for small-scale faults with throws not exceeding a few centimetres. Large seismic-scale faults (throws >20 m) are likely to act as baffles or conduits to flow but they are seldom recovered from subsurface cores and consequently fault rock data for them is sparse. Secondly, experimental two-phase fluid flow data is lacking for fault rocks and, consequently, uncertainties exist when modelling flow across faults in the presence of two or more immiscible phases. We present a data set encompassing both single- and two-phase fluid flow properties of fault and host rocks from the 90-Fathom fault and its damage zone at Cullercoats Bay, NE England. Measurements were made on low-throw single and zones of deformation bands as well as on slip-surface cataclasites present along the ∼120 m throw main fault. Samples were analysed using SEM and X-ray tomography prior to petrophysical measurements. We show that single deformation bands, deformation band zones and slip-surface cataclasites exhibit dissimilar single- and two-phase fluid flow properties. This is due to grain-size reduction being more pronounced in slip-surface cataclasites and changes in microstructure being fault-parallel for deformation bands but mostly fault-perpendicular for slip-surface cataclasites. A trend of fault rocks with low absolute permeabilities exhibiting lower relative permeabilities than more permeable rocks at the same capillary pressure is evident. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Fault rocks can function as barriers to subsurface fluid flow and affect the storage of CO2 in geological structures. Even though flow across faults often involves more than one fluid phase, it is typically modeled using only single-phase functions due to a lack of fault rock relative permeability data and complexities in incorporating two-phase flow properties into flow simulations. Here we present two-phase fluid flow data for cataclastic fault rocks in porous sandstone from the 90-Fathom fault (northeast England). The study area represents a field analogue for North Sea saline aquifers of Permian-Triassic age that are currently being considered for CO2 storage. We use the experimental data to populate a synthetic model of a faulted saline aquifer to assess the impact of these fault rocks on CO2 injection. We show that even fault rocks with low clay contents and very limited quartz cementation can act as major baffles to the flow of a non-wetting phase if realistic two-phase properties are taken into account. Consequently, pressure may increase far more rapidly in the storage compartment during CO2 injection than anticipated based on models that only incorporate absolute fault rock permeabilities. To avoid high pressures, which may lead to hydrofracturing and CO2 leakage, either more complex injection strategies need to be adopted or seismic data acquired to ensure the absence of faults in aquifers selected for CO2 storage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: It is becoming increasingly common practice to model the impact of faults on fluid flow within petroleum reservoirs by applying transmissibility multipliers, calculated from the single-phase permeability of fault rocks, to the grid-blocks adjacent to faults in production simulations. The multi-phase flow properties (e.g. relative permeability and capillary pressure) of fault rocks are not considered because special core analysis has never previously been conducted on fault rock samples. Here, we partially fill this knowledge gap by presenting data from the first experiments that have measured the gas relative permeability (krg ) of cataclastic fault rocks. The cataclastic faults were collected from an outcrop of Permo-Triassic sandstone in the Moray Firth, Scotland; the fault rocks are similar to those found within Rotliegend gas reservoirs in the UK southern North Sea. The relative permeability measurements were made using a gas pulse-decay technique on samples whose water saturation was varied using vapour chambers. The measurements indicate that if the same fault rocks were present in gas reservoirs from the southern Permian Basin they would have krg values of <0.02. Failure to take into account relative permeability effects could therefore lead to an overestimation of the transmissibility of faults within gas reservoirs by several orders of magnitude. Incorporation of these new results into a simplified production simulation model can explain the pressure evolution from a compartmentalised Rotliegend gas reservoir from the southern North Sea, offshore Netherlands, which could not easily be explained using only single-phase permeability data from fault rocks. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]