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Abstract The implementation of the United Nations (UN) Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) has resulted in an increased focus on developing innovative, sustainable sanitation techniques to address the demand for adequate and equitable sanitation in low-income areas. We examined the background, current situation, challenges, and perspectives of global sanitation. We used bibliometric analysis and word cluster analysis to evaluate sanitation research from 1992 to 2016 based on the Science Citation Index EXPANDED (SCI-EXPANDED) and Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) databases. Our results show that sanitation is a comprehensive field connected with multiple categories, and the increasing number of publications reflects a strong interest in this research area. Most of the research took place in developed countries, especially the USA, although sanitation problems are more serious in developing countries. Innovations in sanitation techniques may keep susceptible populations from contracting diseases caused by various kinds of contaminants and microorganisms. Hence, the hygienization of human excreta, resource recovery, and removal of micro-pollutants from excreta can serve as effective sustainable solutions. Commercialized technologies, like composting, anaerobic digestion, and storage, are reliable but still face challenges in addressing the links between the political, social, institutional, cultural, and educational aspects of sanitation. Innovative technologies, such as Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs), Microbial Electrolysis Cells (MECs), and struvite precipitation, are at the TRL (Technology readiness levels) 8 level, meaning that they qualify as "actual systems completed and qualified through test and demonstration." Solutions that take into consideration economic feasibility and all the different aspects of sanitation are required. There is an urgent demand for holistic solutions considering government support, social acceptability, as well as technological reliability that can be effectively adapted to local conditions. Graphical abstract Unlabelled Image Highlights • Data for sanitation research from year of 1900 to 2016 have been collected and analyzed. • Hotspots for sanitation research have been discussed for future work based on the keywords data. • The constraints for global sanitation have been identified. • Promising technologies have been evaluated and proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The wide-spread prevalence of unimproved sanitation technologies has been a major cause of concern for the environment and public health, and China is no exception to this. Towards the sanitation issue, toilet revolution has become a buzzword in China recently. This paper elaborates the backgrounds, connotations, and actions of the toilet revolution in China. The toilet revolution aims to create sanitation infrastructure and public services that work for everyone and that turn waste into value. Opportunities for implementing the toilet revolution include: fulfilling Millennium Development Goals and new Sustainable Development Goals; government support at all levels for popularizing sanitary toilet; environmental protection to alleviate wastewater pollution; resource recovery from human waste and disease prevention for health and wellbeing improvement. Meanwhile, the challenges faced are: insufficient funding and policy support, regional imbalance and lagging approval processes, weak sanitary awareness and low acceptance of new toilets, lack of R&D and service system. The toilet revolution requires a concerted effort from many governmental departments. It needs to address not only technology implementation, but also social acceptance, economic affordability, maintenance issues and, increasingly, gender considerations. Aligned with the ecological sanitation principles, it calls for understanding issues across the entire sanitation service chain. Public-private partnership is also recommended to absorb private capital to make up the lack of funds, as well as arouse the enthusiasm of the public. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Current methods for estimating sanitation emissions underestimate the significance of methane emissions from non-sewered sanitation systems (NSSS), which are prevalent in many countries. NSSS play a vital role in the safe management of fecal sludge, accounting for approximately half of all existing sanitation provisions. We analyzed the distribution of global NSSS and used IPCC accounting methods to estimate the total methane emissions profiles from these systems. Then, we examined the literature to establish the level of uncertainty associated with this accounting estimate. The global methane emissions from NSSS in 2020 was estimated to as 377 (22–1003) Mt CO 2 e/year or 4.7% (0.3%–12.5%) of global anthropogenic methane emissions, which are comparable to the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from wastewater treatment plants. NSSS is the major option for open defecation and is expected to increase by 55 Mt CO 2 e/year after complete open defecation free. It is time to acknowledge the GHG emissions from the NSSS as a non-negligible source. • The global distribution of NSSS was partially visualized. • The CH 4 emission from global NSSS was tentatively calculated. • The impact of temperature on the in-situ monitoring was briefly analyzed. • The carbon emissions from NSSS and WWTPs were generally compared. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Current methods for estimating sanitation emissions underestimate the significance of methane emissions from non-sewered sanitation systems (NSSS), which are prevalent in many countries. NSSS play a vital role in the safe management of fecal sludge, accounting for approximately half of all existing sanitation provisions. We analyzed the distribution of global NSSS and used IPCC accounting methods to estimate the total methane emissions profiles from these systems. Then, we examined the literature to establish the level of uncertainty associated with this accounting estimate. The global methane emissions from NSSS in 2020 was estimated to as 377 (22–1003) Mt CO 2 e/year or 4.7% (0.3%–12.5%) of global anthropogenic methane emissions, which are comparable to the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from wastewater treatment plants. NSSS is the major option for open defecation and is expected to increase by 55 Mt CO 2 e/year after complete open defecation free. It is time to acknowledge the GHG emissions from the NSSS as a non-negligible source. • The global distribution of NSSS was partially visualized. • The CH 4 emission from global NSSS was tentatively calculated. • The impact of temperature on the in-situ monitoring was briefly analyzed. • The carbon emissions from NSSS and WWTPs were generally compared. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present scoping study seeks to address the sources of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) exposure of residents of peri-urban Ger areas of Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. Field observations and semi-structured key informant interviews were carried out during 2012 and 2013 to assess the existing WASH situation in the peri-urban Ger areas of Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. In addition, a knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) survey was conducted by Action Contre la Faim (ACF) Mongolia in 210 households to identify the sources of WASH-borne hazards in a statistically representative way. Moreover, the quality of drinking water was analyzed both at the household ( n = 210) and water point (kiosk) ( n = 40) levels to assess the risk of chemical and pathogenic contaminants. Both field observations and interviews revealed that the sanitary environment of the Ger residents is characterized by the lack of a drainage system, unimproved sanitation technology (e.g. unhygienic pit latrines and soak pits), unsafe water supply, and insufficient collection, transportation, and storage mechanisms. Poor infrastructure is associated with low standards of living. The transmission of WASH-borne disease (e.g. diarrhea, dysentery, hepatitis A) is the gravest consequence and source of hazards. The results from the water quality analysis demonstrate that Ger residents are more exposed to biological contamination of stored drinking water by Escherichia coli during the summer (May to August) than in the winter (November to February). During the winter, 36% of household storage containers were contaminated by E. coli at an average level of 12.5 E. coli per 100 ml, while, during the summer, 56% of household storage containers were contaminated at an average level of 50 E. coli per 100 ml. KAP surveys further reveal that the common practice of Ger residents to discharge greywater (with higher chemical oxygen demand) into pit latrines, soak-pits, yards, and streets likely causes environmental pollution and health hazards. Multifaceted WASH-borne exposure was addressed by the scoping study such that various WASH interventions could be planned for the study area and beyond. To tackle the above challenges and problems, a range of appropriate interventions and programs are recommended to reduce the exposure of WASH-borne hazards in the study area and other parts of the world – in both urban and peri-urban settings. The recommendations include: the development and implementation of a water safety plan (WSP), an effective monitoring system for collection, transportation and storage at both water kiosk and household levels, user training for correct use of water containers, effective coordination among stakeholders (including urban planners), development of a household greywater disposal system, and implementation of a functioning solid waste management system. Prior to taking these actions, a detailed study on the ‘pollution load from peri-urban to urban’ should be carried out to assess the WASH-borne vulnerability of both peri-urban and central urban population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The provision of sanitation services for fast-growing urban populations is one of the world's urgent challenges. Hutong neighborhoods in Beijing, capital of China, cannot be rebuilt due to the protection of historical heritage, while residents still need to keep the habit of defecating in public toilets. One hundred public toilets with non-sewered sanitation in the Hutong neighborhoods of Beijing were visited to investigate the actual operating status in response to the "toilet revolution" campaign. The fault tree approach was used to identify the barriers toward a decent and environment-friendly public toilet and evaluate potential risks from the malfunction of various components. Four subsystems are defined and elaborated to calculate the fault possibility. These subsystems are environment- and user-friendly, regarded as ancillary facilities, and used for fecal sludge (FS) management. Statistical analysis of targeted cases indicated that fault probabilities of environmental considerations, user-friendly considerations, ancillary facilities, FS management are calculated as 0.79, 0.96, 0.96, and 0, respectively. The subsystems were weighted using a Delphi method concept. Results showed that the well operation ratio of Beijing Hutong public toilets is only 32%, and the sanitation service value chain can be further optimized. This study also provides references for other countries, which are dedicated to promoting urban sanitation and public health. • Potential risks of public toilets were identified through Fault Tree Analysis. • A methodology in framing failures of public toilet subsystems is developed. • Delphi method was applied, validated, and found useful in sanitation research. • The barriers toward decent and environment-friendly public toilets are identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]