Search

Preconditioning to non-stressful warming can protect some symbiotic cnidarians against the high temperature-induced collapse of their mutualistic endosymbiosis with photosynthetic dinoflagellates ( Symbiodinium spp.), a process known as bleaching. Here, we sought to determine whether such preconditioning is underpinned by differential regulation of aerobic respiration. We quantified in vivo metabolism and mitochondrial respiratory enzyme activity in the naturally symbiotic sea anemone Exaiptasia pallida preconditioned to 30°C for >7 weeks as well as anemones kept at 26°C. Preconditioning resulted in increased Symbiodinium photosynthetic activity and holobiont (host+symbiont) respiration rates. Biomass-normalised activities of host respiratory enzymes [citrate synthase and the mitochondrial electron transport chain (mETC) complexes I and IV] were higher in preconditioned animals, suggesting that increased holobiont respiration may have been due to host mitochondrial biogenesis and/or enlargement. Subsequent acute heating of preconditioned and 'thermally naive' animals to 33°C induced dramatic increases in host mETC complex I and Symbiodinium mETC complex II activities only in thermally naive E. pallida These changes were not reflected in the activities of other respiratory enzymes. Furthermore, bleaching in preconditioned E. pallida (defined as the significant loss of symbionts) was delayed by several days relative to the thermally naive group. These findings suggest that changes to mitochondrial biogenesis and/or function in symbiotic cnidarians during warm preconditioning might play a protective role during periods of exposure to stressful heating., (© 2017. Published by The Company of Biologists Ltd.)

Symbioses between cnidarians and symbiotic dinoflagellates (Symbiodinium) are ecologically important and physiologically diverse. This diversity contributes to the spatial distribution of specific cnidarian-Symbiodinium associations. Physiological variability also exists within Symbiodinium species, yet we know little regarding its relevance for the establishment of symbiosis under different environmental conditions. Two putatively conspecific Symbiodinium strains (both ITS2-type A4) were isolated from the sea anemone Exaiptasia pallida and placed into unialgal culture. Thermal tolerance of these cultures was compared following heating from 26°C to 33.5°C over 18 days. Photosystem II function was negatively impacted by heating in one strain while PSII function in the other showed little response to elevated temperature. Additionally, infection of Symbiodinium cells into aposymbiotic anemones was assessed for both strains at 26°C and 30.5°C. The heat-sensitive strain had greater infection success at 26°C, while there was no difference in infection between the two strains at the higher temperature. Results from this work suggest that variability in thermal optima or -tolerance within Symbiodinium spp. has relevance for early stages of host-Symbiodinium interactions. Thus, varying infectiousness among differentially heat-sensitive Symbiodinium strains could provide a mechanism for the emergence of novel and potentially resilient cnidarian-Symbiodinium associations in a rapidly warming environment., (© 2016 Society for Applied Microbiology and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Coral reefs are under assault from stressors including global warming, ocean acidification, and urbanization. Knowing how these factors impact the future fate of reefs requires delineating stress responses across ecological, organismal and cellular scales. Recent advances in coral reef biology have integrated molecular processes with ecological fitness and have identified putative suites of temperature acclimation genes in a Scleractinian coral Acropora hyacinthus. We wondered what unique characteristics of these genes determined their coordinate expression in response to temperature acclimation, and whether or not other corals and cnidarians would likewise possess these features. Here, we focus on cytosine methylation as an epigenetic DNA modification that is responsive to environmental stressors. We identify common conserved patterns of cytosine-guanosine dinucleotide (CpG) motif frequencies in upstream promoter domains of different functional gene groups in two cnidarian genomes: a coral (Acropora digitifera) and an anemone (Nematostella vectensis). Our analyses show that CpG motif frequencies are prominent in the promoter domains of functional genes associated with environmental adaptation, particularly those identified in A. hyacinthus. Densities of CpG sites in upstream promoter domains near the transcriptional start site (TSS) are 1.38x higher than genomic background levels upstream of -2000 bp from the TSS. The increase in CpG usage suggests selection to allow for DNA methylation events to occur more frequently within 1 kb of the TSS. In addition, observed shifts in CpG densities among functional groups of genes suggests a potential role for epigenetic DNA methylation within promoter domains to impact functional gene expression responses in A. digitifera and N. vectensis. Identifying promoter epigenetic sequence motifs among genes within specific functional groups establishes an approach to describe integrated cellular responses to environmental stress in reef corals and potential roles of epigenetics on survival and fitness in the face of global climate change.

The association between cnidarians and photosynthetic dinoflagellates within the genus Symbiodinium is a prevalent relationship in tropical and subtropical marine environments. Although the diversity of Symbiodinium provides a possible axis for niche diversification, increased functional range and resilience to physical stressors such as elevated temperature, how such diversity relates to the physiological balance between autotrophy and heterotrophy of the host animal remains unknown. Here, we experimentally show interspecific and intraspecific variability of photosynthetic carbon fixation and subsequent translocation by Symbiodinium to the model cnidarian host Aiptasia pallida. By using a clonal anemone line harboring different species of Symbiodinium, we determined that symbiont identity influences trophic plasticity through its density, capacity to fix carbon, quantity of translocated carbon and ultimately the host's capacity to ingest and digest prey. Symbiont carbon translocation and host prey ingestion were positively correlated across symbiont combinations that consisted of different isoclonal lines of Symbiodinium minutum, while a combination with type D4-5 Symbiodinium displayed lower carbon translocation, and prey capture and digestion more similar to Aiptasia lacking symbionts. The absence of a shift toward greater heterotrophy when carbon translocation is low suggests that the metabolic demand of feeding and digestion may overwhelm nutritional stores when photosynthesis is reduced, and amends the possible role of animal feeding in resistance to or recovery from the effects of climate change in more obligate symbioses such as reef-building corals., (© 2015. Published by The Company of Biologists Ltd.)

Increased seawater pCO2, and in turn 'ocean acidification' (OA), is predicted to profoundly impact marine ecosystem diversity and function this century. Much research has already focussed on calcifying reef-forming corals (Class: Anthozoa) that appear particularly susceptible to OA via reduced net calcification. However, here we show that OA-like conditions can simultaneously enhance the ecological success of non-calcifying anthozoans, which not only play key ecological and biogeochemical roles in present day benthic ecosystems but also represent a model organism should calcifying anthozoans exist as less calcified (soft-bodied) forms in future oceans. Increased growth (abundance and size) of the sea anemone ( Anemonia viridis) population was observed along a natural CO2 gradient at Vulcano, Italy. Both gross photosynthesis ( PG) and respiration (R) increased with pCO2 indicating that the increased growth was, at least in part, fuelled by bottom up (CO2 stimulation) of metabolism. The increase of PG outweighed that of R and the genetic identity of the symbiotic microalgae ( Symbiodinium spp.) remained unchanged (type A19) suggesting proximity to the vent site relieved CO2 limitation of the anemones' symbiotic microalgal population. Our observations of enhanced productivity with pCO2, which are consistent with previous reports for some calcifying corals, convey an increase in fitness that may enable non-calcifying anthozoans to thrive in future environments, i.e. higher seawater pCO2. Understanding how CO2-enhanced productivity of non- (and less-) calcifying anthozoans applies more widely to tropical ecosystems is a priority where such organisms can dominate benthic ecosystems, in particular following localized anthropogenic stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]