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This paper estimates the effects of state-imposed curriculum mandates on the test scores of public-school students who took the SAT in 2001. By 1998, 14 states had mandates that high-school students should take an economics course. For these states, the proportion of public-school students taking high-school economics was around twice that of states without mandates. The mandate may be interpreted as a regulation on input use in the education sector, potentially impairing the efficiency of schools. It is hypothesized that where there is a mandate, test scores should be lower. The merit of the mandate on scores can be assessed empirically. Using microlevel data on a large sample of students across the United States, this inquiry tests whether students' academic performances are higher or lower in states where there are mandates. This test offers a direct evaluation of the efficiency of the mandate. The mandate reduces test scores by as much as 0.25 standard deviations for those students who would not otherwise have enrolled. This paper sets out the theoretical explanation from the imposition of a mandate, describes the dataset, sets out the estimation method, and reports the results. (Contains 6 tables and 24 references.) (Author/WFA)

Part I of this paper reviews research on effects of vocational course work on dropout rates, probabilities of employment, earnings, productivity, and basic skills. The review is organized around 10 questions. Answers to these questions include: (1) vocational education lowers dropout rates; (2) economic benefits are substantial; (3) economic benefits depend on getting a training-related job; (4) less than half of vocational graduates get training-related jobs; (5) occupationally specific skills are not used because of lack of emphasis on placement, insufficient employer involvement, and training for jobs not in demand; (6) basic skills cannot substitute for occupational skills; (7) obsolescence is less important than not using and forgetting skills; (8) studying occupationally specific skills does not necessarily lower achievement in academic areas; (9) three or four courses in an occupational specialty are optimal; and (10) occupationally specific skills are best learned on the job. Part II presents recommendations for improving vocational education's contribution to successful labor market transition of disadvantaged youth. Recommendations include the following: (1) vocational teachers should take responsibility for and devote time to student placement; (2) well-informed career choice precedes entry into intensive occupational training; (3) basic skills should not be neglected; (4) training should be offered only in demand occupations; and (5) state aid should be allocated by a formula that rewards success in serving students. (YLB)

Study findings showed that living with a new family in a foreign country has a major and direct impact on the quality of young people's relationships with parents, siblings, and friends. A sample of 300 recently returned AFS students were surveyed; 173 students completed questionnaires. The returned students assessed their communication with their parents as being significantly higher in frequency and in quality than their communication with siblings and friends. Regarding changes that may have occurred in relationships since their departure for their homestay abroad, students revealed that relationships with friends changed more negatively than relationships with siblings or parents. One fifth of relationships with friends were described as deteriorating a great deal. In contrast, only 2 percent of parent relationships and only 1 percent of sibling relationships were described in this way. Romantic attachments are especially prone to deterioration. In the cases of both romances and other friendships, the underlying cause of negative changes was often identified as the comparatively rapid maturation and increase in knowledge on the part of the returned AFS student. (RM)

The research literature on the preparation of young people for work proves that policy recommendations are based on two false premises--academic skills are good substitutes for occupation-specific skills and increases in job turnover and skill obsolescence rates have caused a decline in the return to occupation-specific training by schools. Analyses provide strong evidence that both generic technical competence and occupation-specific competencies have large effects on worker productivity and other indicators of labor market success. The decline in occupational turnover means the social returns to occupational skills training have increased. The rapid obsolescence of skills implies greater need for occupational skills development, not reduced need. If vocational students learn less mathematics and science than many academic students, it is because they take less demanding, not fewer, academic courses. School-based occupational training produces four effects: within-job productivity, technology-skill transfer, job access, and job stability. Because getting a training-related job is essential for the training to pay off, greater emphasis needs to be given to ensuring that graduates find such employment. The payoff to teaching computer applications is very large. Most high school vocational students could develop their skills more rapidly if their program presented greater challenges and expected more of them. (Includes 12 figures and 18 tables. Appendixes contain 172 references and 38 endnotes.) (YLB)

Prepared for State University of New York/Buffalo researchers participating in a state-sponsored educational financing project, this background paper focuses on the vocational education "program effects" of changing financial aid formulas and/or the rationale for organizing school districts and regional services. It scrutinizes the role of Boards of Cooperative Educational Services and school district organizations which prepare students for specific occupations through traditional vocational education. The first of nine sections examines occupational education in New York and the transition from vocational to career education. Section 2 traces vocational education's historical development (1917 to the present) and the emergence of career education. The third section reviews the New York State Regent's (1971, Position Paper #11) citing of needs for educational system reorganization, developmental continuum adoption, and design flexibility. Section 4 discusses problems in traditional vocational education. Section 5 interprets and evaluates the influences, goals, and activities of New York's occupational education plan. The sixth section examines implementation of three occupational education projects, and section 7 identifies issues involved in implementing occupational/career education programs. Section 8 discusses strategies of individualization versus standardized program expansion. The final section presents an occupational education planning paradigm. (CSS)

The document establishes the need for a nationwide youth participation program and suggest strategies and problems in implementing such programs. Youth participation provides a means for young people to be released from their isolation from the rest of society by providing the opportunity for participation in socially productive activities. The volume is presented in two parts. Part I examines the adolescent predicament. Topics include the social context of youth, concepts of youth as "not yet" people, alienated youth and the alienating society, and adolescent needs. Part II, the major portion of the document, discusses youth participation at length. The first section provides criteria that may be used both in observing present programs and designing new ones, and distinguishes youth participation from other programs that benefit youth. The section concludes with an analysis of benefits of youth participation to youth, the community, the policy, and the school. The second section in Part II examines issues and concerns of program implementation. Topics include minority students, youth decision making, adult leadership, teacher training, voluntary adult participation, school credit, and the cost of youth participation. The appendix provides brief descriptions of 15 youth participation projects such as publishing community magazines, job counseling, day care work, physical therapy, tutoring, and documenting and restoring historical sites. Projects are based in public and alternative schools and in community-based agencies. (Author/KC)

Recent reports have pointed to the need for teachers to have "deep understanding" of concepts and procedures in school mathematics, particularly those related to functions. However, previous research has demonstrated that many students, including preservice teachers, have limited understanding of functions. This paper describes a set of nonroutine tasks designed to assess various aspects of students' understanding of functions, including their use of different representations (algebraic, tabular, and graphic) and their ability to adopt a process perspective or an object perspective on functions. This paper focuses on students' versatility and adaptability, which together constitute flexibility. The nonroutine tasks were used in task-based interviews of two types: contemporaneous interactive interviews and sequential reflective interviews. The paper provides examples of the tasks and discusses the reasoning behind the rationales applied. (Contains 6 figures and 21 references.) (SLD)

This paper describes the effects of science teacher subject-matter knowledge on classroom discourse at the level of individual utterances. It details one of three parallel analyses conducted in a year-long study of language in the classrooms of four new biology teachers. The conceptual framework of the study predicted that when teaching unfamiliar subject matter, teachers would use a variety of discourse strategies to constrain student talk to a narrowly circumscribed topic domain. The paper includes the results of an utterance-by-utterance analysis of teacher and student talk in a 30-lesson sample of science instruction. Data are broken down by classroom activity for a number of measures, including duration of utterances, domination of the speaking floor by the teacher, frequency of teacher questioning, cognitive level of teacher questions, and student verbal participation. When teaching unfamiliar topics, the four teachers in this study tended to talk more frequently and for longer periods of time, ask questions frequently, and rely heavily on low cognitive-level questions. The rate of student questions to the teacher was found to vary with the classroom activity. In common classroom communicative settings, student questions were less common when the teacher was teaching unfamiliar subject matter. The implications of these findings include a suggestion that teacher knowledge may be an important unconsidered variable in research on the cognitive level of questions and teacher wait-time. (Author/CW)

This paper is about how 36 student science teachers described and responded to a classroom management problem. Each had written an account of a well-remembered event about classroom management. The accounts were analyzed to determine whether student teachers attended to the engagement of groups or focused on the misbehavior of individuals, and whether they attempted to foster growth or enforce compliance. Only about half of the student teachers attended to the engagement of groups, and fewer than half attempted to foster pupil growth. Many demonstrated a pressing need for classroom management guidance. Accordingly, science teacher educators should analyze their student teachers' accounts of a well-remembered event about classroom management so as to guide them to become better managers. An appendix presents one student teacher's account of a well-remembered event about classroom management. (Contains 24 references.) (Author/SM)

This paper examines studies that have investigated academic learning outcomes in service learning, identifies unanswered questions in assessing academic efforts, and offers guidelines to evaluate content gains in courses that integrate service learning. Research shows that peer tutoring increases achievement scores for both the tutors and the students being tutored. Consistent gains in factual knowledge have been found when measuring the kind of information students are most likely to encounter in their field experiences. Studies show that community service is a valuable experience for helping students understand course material and achieve personal and educational goals. Some research shows that students involved in service learning get better grades and are more likely to feel that they have performed up to their potential in the course. Unanswered questions about service learning focus on: (1) why the assessment of academic learning outcomes in service learning is different; (2) what the methodological issues are that must be considered; and (3) what aspects of service learning have been most revealing. (Contains 30 references.) (SM)

This paper aims to demonstrate how listening to and discussing the stories inservice science supervisors tell about a novice science teacher provides an opportunity for student science teachers to construct practical knowledge about teaching. Three levels of practical knowledge of teaching are recognized: (1) rules of practice; (2) practical principles; and (3) images. During individual audiotaped interviews, inservice science supervisors were asked to "Tell me a story about a novice science teacher you've supervised." Thirty-two student teachers listened to the stories, discussed them, and then individually wrote what they came to know from the exercise. A list was made of all the student teachers' comments that embodied a rule, principle, or image. The various pieces of practical knowledge that the student teachers constructed cohered around four themes: the complex nature of teaching; planning and implementing lessons; professional improvement and growth; and the character, personality, and style of a teacher. Contains 20 references. (DDR)

This paper presents an approach to chemistry and nutrition that focuses on food items that people consider delicious. Information is organized according to three categories of food chemicals that provide energy to the human body: (1) fats and oils; (2) carbohydrates; and (3) proteins. Minerals, vitamins, and additives are also discussed along with the food pyramid. A student activity that focuses on chemical analysis of food is also provided. (DDR)

This paper reports on field research conducted by students in undergraduate methods courses for secondary social studies in 1996-97. Journal entries, lesson plans, oral history reactions, and interviews were used to gather data. Objectives were: to describe the role of the interviewer in an oral history setting; and to identify and clarify the multiple dimensions of reflection present in the interviewer. Students are seen as going through the complete "circle of life" as described by J. Bruchac's use of the Native American metaphor of the story circle. The key markers of the circle include: (1) child (when we listen to the stories being told); (2) adolescent (when we observe the context in which the stories are revealed); (3) adult (when we remember the stories that were told in our youth); and (4) elder (when we share the stories we have learned). These four markers become the four themes used to describe the data: stage 1--child (where the interview takes place and data is collected; stage 2--adolescent (when the information of the interview is put into various contextual frames; stage 3--adult (when the information is compared with other types of data on the same period); and stage 4--elder (when the information is written up and shared with an audience). The study uses specific interviews to explain each of the stages and shares field notes of the students. (EH)

This study explores how and when physics became the last course in U.S. high school science and what impact this had on high school physics offerings and student enrollment. Four main areas of historical data were identified: (1) national and state education statistics; (2) reports from major organizations on reform and policy; (3) reports from professional educational societies and organizations; and (4) published educational research from professional journals and commentary by education reformers from particular time periods. The historical development of high school physics in the U.S. was analyzed. Findings were grouped into several pertinent areas regarding the order of the science courses, enrollment, and time allocation. (KHR)

Noting that teachers must devise writing situations that help students see possibilities for revision beyond mechanics and usage, this paper describes several exercises that will help students use the computer or word processor as a tool for assisting them when they write. The exercises, which can be done with or without a microcomputer, with a local area network (LAN), or with time-sharing mini- or mainframe computers, include the following: (1) writing a variation on the themes of a poem on borrowing, (2) generating as many translations as possible of Latin sentences from history and literature, (3) altering sentences with the students' own language, (4) inserting interior monologues into historical speeches or literary soliloquies, (5) writing both a speech or scolding and an interior monologue of the listener's reactions, and (6) writing reactions to the work of peers. The paper also describes ways in which the computer has been successfully incorporated into the classroom and into the English curriculum. Samples of the exercises are appended. (HTH)

This paper analyzes how the composition of an institution's student body affects performance of that institution's students, examining how average student quality and dispersion in student quality within the student body affects individual students' future earnings. The first section examines two reasons why one's peers would affect future labor market success: peer effects and employer screening. Peers can augment or detract from human capital accumulation through numerous types of interactions. Employer screening captures the role of one's fellow students in shaping the beliefs of employers about the quality of students at the institution. These may affect employers' actions in two ways (the level of student quality may affect the intensity by which employers recruit, and the dispersion in student quality may affect the degree to which employers screen by ability when interviewing students). The paper reviews relevant research, then uses 1982 High School and Beyond Survey data to provide additional evidence. Findings are consistent with previous research. Overall, level of student quality at an institution is an important determinant of earnings. A 100-point increase in the median SAT relates to a 3-percent increase in student annual earnings. Students with lower SAT scores appear to receive the highest premium from attending an institution with a high median SAT. (Contains 21 references.) (SM)

Seven features of adolescents' relationships with mothers and with fathers (time together per day, number of activities, degree of influence, subjective closeness, and frequency of experiencing positive, hostile, and sad emotions in the relationship) were used to predict adolescents' problem behavior and chemical use. Using a sample of 64 seventh- and 43 tenth-grade adolescents and self-report questionnaires, this study: (1) examined age differences in these features of mother-adolescent and father-adolescent relationships; and (2) investigated whether features of relationships with mothers and with fathers predict adolescents' problem behavior and chemical use. Adolescents' reports of hostile emotions experienced in relationships with mothers and with fathers were significant correlates and predictors of problem behavior and chemical use. For adolescents in both grades, features of relationships with mothers explained more variability in reports of problem behavior. Further, lower levels of parental influence were associated with and predictive of higher levels of problem behavior and chemical use in the tenth-grade sample. These findings suggest that intervention that is targeted at assisting parents in developing and maintaining a less hostile, more positive, active, and supportive parent-adolescent relationship may be warranted. (Author/EV)

This study examined the emotional tone and degree of influence in adolescents' relationships with parents and friends. Early adolescent relationships were compared to middle adolescent relationships, and at both ages, relationships with mothers, fathers, and friends were compared. Using a self-report questionnaire, seventh- and tenth-grade adolescents rated the degree to which they were influenced by their mothers, fathers, and best friends and the frequency with which they experienced positive and negative emotions in their relationships with them. Compared to tenth-graders, seventh-graders reported stronger influence, more frequent positive emotions, and less frequent negative emotions in relationships with parents. There were no grade differences in the degree of influence or the frequency of experiencing positive or negative emotions in relationships with friends. The frequency with which seventh-graders experienced positive emotions in relationships with friends did not differ from the frequency with which they experienced positive emotions in relationships with mothers and fathers. Tenth-graders, however, experienced fewer positive emotions in relationships with fathers than in relationships with friends. Both seventh- and tenth-graders reported more negative emotions in relationships with parents than with friends. Mothers' and fathers' influence was stronger than that of friends for seventh-graders, but only mothers continued to be more influential than friends in the tenth grade. (Contains 18 references.) (Author/EV)

While the value of portfolio learning and assessment has gained much support from the educational community, many questions arise as specific implementations are attempted. This study examined one aspect, namely, the content validity of specific requirements, and addressed the question "How do various constituencies (methods students, student teachers, teacher educators, and practicing teachers) rate the utility of various requirements for student teaching and future teaching in general?" The secondary methods instructor at a small teacher education institution designed 15 possible outcomes to be met, and student portfolio submissions were required for all 15 during the spring 1997 semester. At the conclusion of the semester, these various requirements were validated for perceived utility by comparing the rank order data collected from the following: (1) students just completing methods courses; (2) students just completing their student teaching; (3) practicing teachers from the spring 1997 semester; and (4) teacher educators. Results indicated that there were no differences in rank order correlations, suggesting that all four constituencies agreed on the relative importance of the items. These findings have important implications for future designers of portfolios. They may trust that the perception of utility is equivalent across the various groups. (Contains 4 tables and 18 references.) (SLD)

Since the advent of reform in mathematics education, writing in mathematics courses has taken on an increasingly important role. This paper discusses what one teacher has done over time to incorporate writing into calculus classes and how the techniques employed have evolved over time. The focus is on journal writing, extended exercises, and lab-based exercises. Several recommendations are made to increase the effectiveness of writing exercises in mathematics classes. (DDR)

This paper examines the shortcomings of the area studies approach and the comprehensive chronological world history survey approach to teaching world history courses. The study notes the increasing interdependence of the world and its people and advocates a thematic world history approach. By teaching a few important themes in world history, students will develop a keener understanding of world historical processes and their interrelationships. In the process students will become more involved and interested in world history. The paper examines the research related to history instruction and students' knowledge about world history. A thematic approach to world history teaches for understanding and develops meaning for world events today. Themes identified for study include: (1) historiography; (2) patterns of human organization; (3) systems of faith; (4) revolution; and (5) technology. Contains 41 references and a 42-item annotated bibliography. (EH)

During the past 20 years, much has been written on the ethnic/racial identity development of adults. Recently, attention toward adolescents' ethnic identity development has increased; to explicate this new research, a model of ethnic identity development proposed by Phinney (1989) is explored here. The model classifies adolescents into one of four ethnic identity statuses: (1) diffused identity (little or no exploration of one's identity); (2) foreclosed identity (having adopted the attitudes and beliefs about one's ethnic group without any self-exploration); (3) moratorium (an exploration period where adolescents express a keen interest in learning more about their culture); and (4) achieved identity (an ultimate outcome where individuals who possess an achieved identity have experienced a period of exploration and have developed a sense of confidence and pride in his or her ethnic group). Some of the implications of these stages for school counselors include: the need to educate teachers and other school personnel about the impact of ethnic identity on the personal development of minority students; and they must help create a school climate that welcomes diversity and empowers students to explore their ethnic heritage. Such education is important, it is argued, since research indicates a connection linking ethnic identity development to student's academic achievement, interpersonal relationships, and self-esteem. (Contains 21 references.) (RJM)

The purpose of this exploratory study was to develop a model for evaluating teachers' instructional practices in mathematics and the cognitions associated with these practices. The sample consisted of seven beginning and seven experienced teachers of secondary school mathematics, who each taught one lesson of his or her own design. To evaluate instructional practice, a Phase-Dimension Framework for Assessing Mathematics Teaching was developed. It consisted of three dimensions (tasks, learning environment, discourse) that were adopted from the "Professional Standards for Teachers of Mathematics" of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (1991). To evaluate teacher thoughts, a Teacher Cognitions Framework was developed. It also considered teachers' overarching cognitions (goals, knowledge, beliefs) and their cognitions before (planning), during (monitoring and regulating), and after (evaluating and suggesting) their lesson enactments. Data were obtained through observations, lesson plans, videotapes, and audiotapes of structured interviews during the course of one semester. Data analysis suggests that teacher cognitions play a well-defined role in classroom practice. The findings provide useful insights for researchers, supervisors, and teacher educators interested in assessment techniques reflecting recommendations from current reform movements. Three appendixes contain practice ratings of highlighted lessons, a summary chart of lessons dimensions, and a summary of patterns of cognitions. (Contains 1 figure 2 tables, and 74 references.) (Author/SLD)

This paper summarizes current knowledge on the transition to adulthood of youth with serious emotional disturbance in terms of epidemiology, effective interventions, and program models. The first section is introductory and provides definitions and characteristics of transitional youth noting special developmental tasks, outcomes for young adults, challenges to positive outcomes, and the special needs of homeless youth with serious emotional disturbance. The second section reports on ways in which the existing service systems (the child/adolescent system and the adult system) fail to meet the needs of these youth and the resulting poor outcomes. It urges establishment of a comprehensive and integrated system. Section 3 focuses on what works. It identifies transition service principles and essential service components and suggests ways to integrate systems and finance strategies. Section 4 looks at innovative approaches, including programs for transitional youth, adolescent programs, adult programs, and program evaluation and research. The final section offers specific recommendations for transition planning and for action. Five appendices provide: definitions of emotional disturbance, information on longitudinal data bases, summaries of conducive laws and policies, a listing of technical assistance/research and training centers, and a paper by Michelle Antholine: "The Transitional Community Treatment Team." (Contains approximately 180 references.) (DB)

Athletic administrators, working cooperatively with members of the athletic staff, must strive to coordinate the contributions of all those involved with athletics while simultaneously attempting to meet the needs of all facets of the athletic program in the pursuit of excellence. This paper lists 18 specific competencies and skills normally associated with a highly competent and successful administrator of interscolastic and/or intercollegiate sports. The competencies are categorized under the concepts of: (1) technical skills; (2) interpersonal skills; (3) conceptual skills; and (4) dedication and commitment skills. (JD)

There is general agreement that the current teaching of secondary science is not as good as it should be. Different critics identify different weaknesses, but there is agreement that students are not learning how scientists make knowledge claims and use this knowledge. This paper assumes that one powerful influence on the development of teachers is the way they have been taught. An examination of conceptions held by scientists teaching university science courses indicates that university science teaching may have adverse influence on the development of secondary science teachers. The difficulty the researchers identify is that university science teachers take most aspects of teaching for granted and lack the theoretical framework to critique teaching practices and develop alternatives. It is hoped that the illustration of ways in which consideration of education concerns could lead to better university science teaching. Includes 18 references. (Author)