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Although racial/ethnic disparities in police contact are well documented, less is known about other dimensions of inequity in policing. Sexual minority groups may face disproportionate police contact. We used data from the P18 Cohort Study (Version 2), a study conducted to measure determinants of inequity in STI/HIV risk among young sexual minority men (YSMM) in New York City, to measure across-time trends, racial/ethnic disparities, and correlates of self-reported stop-and-frisk experience over the cohort follow-up (2014-2019). Over the study period, 43% reported stop-and-frisk with higher levels reported among Black (47%) and Hispanic/Latinx (45%) than White (38%) participants. Stop-and-frisk levels declined over follow-up for each racial/ethnic group. The per capita rates among P18 participants calculated based on self-reported stop-and-frisk were much higher than rates calculated based on New York City Police Department official counts. We stratified respondents' ZIP codes of residence into tertiles of per capita stop rates and observed pronounced disparities in Black versus White stop-and-frisk rates, particularly in neighborhoods with low or moderate levels of stop-and-frisk activity. YSMM facing the greatest economic vulnerability and mental disorder symptoms were most likely to report stop-and-frisk. Among White respondents levels of past year stop-and-frisk were markedly higher among those who reported past 30 day marijuana use (41%) versus those reporting no use (17%) while among Black and Hispanic/Latinx respondents stop-and-frisk levels were comparable among those reporting marijuana use (38%) versus those reporting no use (31%). These findings suggest inequity in policing is observed not only among racial/ethnic but also sexual minority groups and that racial/ethnic YSMM, who are at the intersection of multiple minority statuses, face disproportionate risk. Because the most socially vulnerable experience disproportionate stop-and-frisk risk, we need to reach YSMM with community resources to promote health and wellbeing as an alternative to targeting this group with stressful and stigmatizing police exposure., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Context: Receptive anal intercourse (RAI), which has become increasingly common among U.S. heterosexual women, is associated with STDs, including HIV, when it is unprotected and coercive. Childhood traumatic experiences may increase sexual risk behavior, but the relationship between childhood trauma and RAI among women has not been examined., Methods: Data from 4,876 female participants in Waves 1 (1994-1995), 3 (2001-2002) and 4 (2007-2008) of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health were used to examine associations between nine self-reported childhood traumas (neglect; emotional, physical and sexual abuse; parental binge drinking and incarceration; and witnessing, being threatened with and experiencing violence) and RAI during adulthood using modified Poisson regression analysis. Whether depression, low self-esteem, drug use, relationship characteristics or sex trade involvement mediated the relationship between trauma and RAI was also explored., Results: Forty percent of the sample reported having engaged in receptive anal intercourse. After adjustment for sociodemographic characteristics, eight of the nine childhood traumas were associated with increased risk of RAI (adjusted prevalence ratios, 1.2-1.5); the strongest association was with experience of violence. Each unit increase in the number of traumas yielded a 16% increase in RAI prevalence. In mediation analyses, only drug use and relationship factors slightly attenuated the association between childhood trauma and RAI (1.2 for each)., Conclusions: Women with a history of childhood trauma may be at increased risk of engaging in RAI, highlighting the importance of screening and trauma-informed education in sexual health settings. Pathways linking childhood trauma and RAI among women are complex and warrant further research., (Copyright © 2020 by the Guttmacher Institute.)

Background This study explored the relationships between participation in group sex and risk for HIV and other sexually transmissible infections (STIs)., Methods: An anonymous online survey collected data from 580 gay and bisexual men using a mobile sex and dating application in Paris, France. Logistic regression analyses were conducted, which controlled for HIV status, HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) use and participants' sociodemographic characteristics., Results: Compared with men with no recent group sex experience, those reporting group sex in the 3 months before the survey (30.7% of the sample) were more likely to have had condomless receptive anal sex at least once in the same period [adjusted odds ratio (aOR)=1.6, 95% confidence interval (CI)=1.1-2.4, P = 0.02], condomless insertive anal sex (aOR=2.0, 95%CI: 2.4-8.7, P < 0.001) and substance use before or during sex (aOR=1.6, 95%CI: 1.1-2.3, P = 0.02). Even when controlling for condom use, men involved with group sex were more likely to be have been diagnosed with a bacterial STI in the previous year (aOR=2.1, 95%CI: 1.3-3.3, P = 0.002)., Conclusions: Group sex remains a useful marker of risk among gay and bisexual men, but research is needed that moves beyond individual practice in order to assess the epidemiological networks comprising group sex and the risks they pose relevant to HIV and other STIs.

Background: The United States has the highest incarceration rate in the world. Incarceration can increase HIV risk behaviors for individuals involved with the criminal justice system and may be a driver of HIV acquisition within the community., Methods: We used an agent-based model to simulate HIV transmission in a sexual-contact network representing heterosexual African American men and women in Philadelphia to identify factors influencing the impact of male mass incarceration on HIV acquisition in women. The model was calibrated using surveillance data and assumed incarceration increased the number of sexual contacts and decreased HIV care engagement for men post-release. Incarceration of a partner increased the number of sexual contacts for women. We compared a counterfactual scenario with no incarceration to scenarios varying key parameters to determine what factors drove HIV acquisition in women., Results: Setting the duration of male high-risk sexual behavior to two years post-release increased the number of HIV transmissions to women by more than 20%. Decreasing post-release HIV care engagement and increasing HIV acquisition risk attributable to sexually transmitted infections (STIs) also increased the number of HIV transmissions to women. Changing the duration of risk behavior for women, the proportion of women engaging in higher risk behavior, and the relative risk of incarceration for HIV-infected men had minimal impact., Conclusion: The mass incarceration of African American men can increase HIV acquisition in African American women on a population-level through factors including post-release high-risk behaviors, disruption of HIV care engagement among formerly incarcerated men, and increased STI prevalence. These findings suggest that the most influential points of intervention may be programs seeking to reduce male risk behaviors and promote HIV care engagement post-release, as well as STI testing and treatment programs for recently incarcerated men, as well as women with incarcerated partners.

Incarceration is strongly associated with post-release STI/HIV risk. One pathway linking incarceration and STI/HIV risk may be incarceration-related dissolution of protective network ties. Among African American men released from prison who were in committed partnerships with women at the time of incarceration (N = 207), we measured the association between committed partnership dissolution during incarceration and STI/HIV risk in the 4 weeks after release. Over one-quarter (28%) experienced incarceration-related partnership dissolution. In adjusted analyses, incarceration-related partnership dissolution was strongly associated with post-release binge drinking (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 4.2, 95% confidence interval (CI); 1.4-15.5). Those who experienced incarceration-related partnership dissolution were much more likely to engage in multiple/concurrent partnerships or sex trade defined as buying or selling sex (64%) than those who returned to the partner (12%; AOR 20.1, 95% CI 3.4-175.6). Policies that promote maintenance of relationships during incarceration may be important for protecting health.

Incarceration is thought to influence HIV transmission by disrupting partnerships that provide support and protect against sex risk-taking. Current correctional facility-based family-strengthening programs focus on marital partnerships, a minority of inmates' partnerships. Research on the sex partnerships of incarcerated African-American men and the types of partnerships most likely to protect against HIV-related sex risk is limited. Improved understanding can inform expansion of correctional facility-based family-strengthening programs to a greater proportion of protective partnerships and HIV risk reduction programs to partnerships vulnerable to sex risk. Project DISRUPT is a cohort study of African-American men being released from prison in North Carolina who were in committed heterosexual partnerships at prison entry. Using baseline survey data (N = 189), we conducted latent class analysis (LCA) to identify subgroups of participants with distinct relationship profiles and measured associations between relationship characteristics and multiple partnerships of inmates and their partners in the six months before incarceration. LCA indicated a two-class solution, with relationships distinguished by satisfaction/stability (satisfied/stable class: 58.0%; dissatisfied/unstable class: 42.0%); each class had comparable relationship length and levels of marriage and cohabitation. Dissatisfied/unstable relationships were associated with multiple partnerships among participants (AOR 2.93, 95% CI 1.50, 5.72) and partners (AOR 4.95, 95% CI 1.68, 14.58). Satisfaction indicators-versus length, marriage, or cohabitation-were the strongest independent correlates of inmates' and partners' multiple partnerships. Pre-incarceration economic deprivation, mental disorder symptoms, substance use, and violence in relationships were associated with dissatisfaction/instability. Prison-based programs designed to maintain healthy partnerships, strengthen relationship skills, and reduce HIV risk-taking and violence in relationships are warranted and should be targeted to both marital and nonmarital partnerships. Programming also should address the poverty, mental illness, and substance use factors that threaten relationship satisfaction/stability and increase HIV risk.

Child sexual abuse is associated with substance use and sexual risk behaviors during adolescence and adulthood, but no known studies have documented associations across the life course in a nationally representative U.S., Sample: We used the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health to measure associations between child sexual abuse and substance use and sexual risk behaviors during adolescence, young adulthood, and adulthood among males and females (n = 11,820). Approximately 10% of females and 7% of males reported child sexual abuse. Associations with substance use were strongest during adolescence and lessened over time. Increased odds of sexual risk among those with a history of child sexual abuse remained consistent through the life course. Significant gender differences existed for some associations (e.g., adulthood multiple partners: males adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 1.73, 95%CI:1.18, 2.53; females AOR = 1.11, 95%CI:0.79, 1.56). Trauma-informed prevention interventions should address child sexual abuse among both males and females to prevent substance use and sexual risk behavior throughout the life course.

After release from incarceration, former female inmates face considerable stressors, which may influence drug use and other risk behaviors that increase risk for HIV infection. Involvement in a committed partnership may protect women against re-entry stressors that may lead to risky behaviors. This study measured the association between time since release from incarceration (1-6 months ago, and >6 months ago versus never incarcerated) and HIV risk behaviors and evaluated whether these associations differed by involvement in a committed partnership. Women released within the past 6 months were significantly more likely to have smoked crack cocaine, used injection drugs and engaged in transactional sex in the past month compared to never-incarcerated women and women released more distally. Stratified analyses indicated that incarceration within the past 6 months was associated with crack cocaine smoking, injection drug use and transactional sex among women without a committed partner yet unassociated with these risk behaviors among those with a committed partner.

Trading sex for money, drugs, goods, services, or a place to stay is prevalent among women who use drugs and has been associated with women's risk of HIV acquisition. There is evidence that trading sex for drugs only may be associated with elevated risk of HIV compared with trading sex for money. The purpose of this study was to assess whether HIV risk behaviors and HIV prevalence differ among African American drug using women (N = 92) who traded sex for drugs only, traded sex for economic resources (defined as money, shelter, or other resources) only, or traded sex for both economic resources and drugs. In this study, lower rates of condom use and higher rates of HIV were found among women who traded sex for drugs only compared to women who traded sex for economic resources or for economic resources and drugs. These findings suggest that African American women who trade sex for drugs only represent an understudied yet highly vulnerable group.

Purpose: Social and economic contextual factors may promote concurrent sexual partnerships, which can accelerate population HIV transmission and are more common among African Americans than U.S. Whites. We investigated the relationship between contextual factors and concurrency., Methods: We analyzed past 12-month concurrency prevalence in the 2002 National Survey of Family Growth and its contextual database in relation to county sex ratio (among respondent's racial and ethnic group), percentage in poverty (among respondent's racial and ethnic group), and violent crime rate. Analyses examined counties with balanced (0.95-1.05 males/female) or low (<0.9) sex ratios., Results: Concurrency prevalence was greater (odds ratio [OR]; 95% confidence interval [CI]) in counties with low sex ratios (OR, 1.67; 95% CI, 1.17-2.39), more poverty (OR, 1.18; 95% CI, 0.98-1.42 per 10 percentage-point increase), and higher crime rates (OR, 1.04; 95% CI, 1.00-1.09 per 1000 population/year). Notably, 99.5% of Whites and 93.7% of Hispanics, but only 7.85% of Blacks, lived in balanced sex ratio counties; about 5% of Whites, half of Hispanics, and three-fourths of Blacks resided in counties with >20% same-race poverty., Conclusions: The dramatic Black-White differences in contextual factors in the United States and their association with sexual concurrency could contribute to the nation's profound racial disparities in HIV infection., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

We used the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (N = 14,322) to measure associations between non-injection crack-cocaine and injection drug use and sexually transmitted infection including HIV (STI/HIV) risk among young adults in the United States and to identify factors that mediate the relationship between drug use and infection. Respondents were categorized as injection drug users, non-injection crack-cocaine users, or non-users of crack-cocaine or injection drugs. Non-injection crack-cocaine use remained an independent correlate of STI when adjusting for age at first sex and socio-demographic characteristics (adjusted prevalence ratio (APR): 1.64, 95 % confidence interval (CI): 1.16-2.31) and sexual risk behaviors including multiple partnerships and inconsistent condom use. Injection drug use was strongly associated with STI (APR: 2.62, 95 % CI: 1.29-5.33); this association appeared to be mediated by sex with STI-infected partners rather than by sexual risk behaviors. The results underscore the importance of sexual risk reduction among all drug users including IDUs, who face high sexual as well as parenteral transmission risk.

Objectives: We examined race differences in the longitudinal associations between adolescent alcohol use and adulthood sexually transmitted infection (STI) risk in the United States., Methods: We estimated multivariable logistic regression models using Waves I (1994-1995: adolescence) and III (2001-2002: young adulthood) of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (n = 10 783) to estimate associations and assess differences between Whites and African Americans., Results: In adjusted analyses, adolescent alcohol indicators predicted adulthood inconsistent condom use for both races but were significantly stronger, more consistent predictors of elevated partnership levels for African Americans than Whites. Among African Americans but not Whites, self-reported STI was predicted by adolescent report of any prior use (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 1.47; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.00, 2.17) and past-year history of getting drunk (AOR = 1.53; 95% CI = 1.01, 2.32). Among Whites but not African Americans, biologically confirmed STI was predicted by adolescent report of past-year history of getting drunk (AOR = 1.68; 95% CI = 1.07, 2.63) and consistent drinking (AOR = 1.65; 95% CI = 1.03, 2.65)., Conclusions: African American and White adolescent drinkers are priority populations for STI prevention. Prevention of adolescent alcohol use may contribute to reductions in adulthood STI risk.

Objectives: We examined the link between incarceration and sexually transmitted infection (STI), including HIV, from a social network perspective., Methods: We used data collected during a social network study conducted in Brooklyn, NY (n = 343), to measure associations between incarceration and infection with herpes simplex virus-2, chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis or HIV and sex with an infected partner, adjusting for characteristics of respondents and their sex partners., Results: Infection with an STI or HIV was associated with incarceration of less than 1 year (adjusted prevalence ratio [PR] = 1.33; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.01, 1.76) and 1 year or longer (adjusted PR = 1.37; 95% CI = 1.08, 1.74). Sex in the past 3 months with an infected partner was associated with sex in the past 3 months with 1 partner (adjusted PR = 1.42; 95% CI = 1.12, 1.79) and with 2 or more partners (adjusted PR = 1.85; 95% CI = 1.43, 2.38) who had ever been incarcerated., Conclusions: The results highlight the need for STI and HIV treatment and prevention for current and former prisoners and provide preliminary evidence to suggest that incarceration may influence STI and HIV, possibly because incarceration increases the risk of sex with infected partners.

Places where people meet new sex partners can be venues for the delivery of individual and environmental interventions that aim to reduce transmission of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STI). Using the Priorities for Local AIDS Control Efforts (PLACE) methodology we identified and characterized venues where people in a southeastern US city with high prevalence of both HIV and STI go to meet new sexual partners. A total of 123 community informants identified 143 public, private and commercial venues where people meet sex partners. Condoms were available at 14% of the venues, although 48% of venue representatives expressed a willingness to host HIV prevention efforts. Interviews with 373 people (229 men, 144 women) socializing at a random sample of 54 venues found high rates of HIV risk behaviors including concurrent sexual partnerships, transactional sex and illicit substance abuse. Risk behaviors were more common among those at certain venue types including those that may be overlooked by public health outreach efforts. The systematic methodology used was successful in locating venues where risky encounters are established and reveal opportunities for targeted HIV prevention and testing programs as well as research.

This study examines the relationship between criminal justice involvement and high-risk sexual partnerships among a random sample of 416 women in methadone treatment in New York City. Logistic regression models were used to estimate the associations between recent criminal justice involvement (arrest or incarceration in the past 6 months) and recent high-risk partnerships (multiple sex partners, sex trading, or sex with a risky partner in the past 6 months) when adjusting for sociodemographic factors and recent regular drug use. Women with recent criminal justice involvement demonstrated higher odds of engaging in high-risk sex partnerships. Although regular drug use was a significant confounder of several of these relationships, recent arrest or incarceration remained significantly associated with multiple sex partnerships, sex with a risky partner, and engaging in unprotected sex and a high-risk partnership even after controlling for regular drug use and other social stressors. This study highlights the vulnerability of drug-involved women offenders to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) risk and points to the need for investigation into the role of arrest and incarceration as factors that may contribute to HIV infection., (Copyright 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) advise repeat HIV testing for partners of HIV-infected persons; injection drug users and their sex partners; individuals with recent multiple partnerships and their sex partners; those involved in sex trade; and men who have sex with men. Additional social and behavioral variables may be useful for identifying priority populations., Methods: We analyzed data collected during a social network study conducted in a Brooklyn, NY, neighborhood to identify social and behavioral characteristics of respondents (N = 343) involved in HIV-discordant, herpes simplex virus-2- discordant, and chlamydia-discordant partnerships., Results: HIV partnership discordance was associated with injection drug use but was generally not associated with sexual behaviors including multiple partnerships and sex trade. herpes simplex virus-2 and chlamydia partnership discordance were associated with multiple partnerships, sex trade, and same sex partnership history. Additional correlates of sexually transmitted infection (STI)/HIV-discordant partnerships included older age (>or=25 years), noninjection drug use, and incarceration history. Analyses suggested that screening tools composed of CDC-recommended sexual risk and injection drug indicators plus indicators of older age, noninjection drug use, and incarceration were more effective in identifying STI/HIV priority populations than tools composed of CDC indicators alone., Conclusions: Screening tools that include social and behavioral indicators may improve STI/HIV case-finding effectiveness.

Objectives: To describe: (a) the prevalence and individual and network characteristics of group sex events (GSEs) and GSE attendees; and (b) HIV/sexually transmitted infection (STI) discordance among respondents who said they went to a GSE together., Methods and Design: In a sociometric network study of risk partners (defined as sexual partners, persons with whom respondents attended a GSE, or drug injection partners) in Brooklyn, NY, we recruited a high-risk sample of 465 adults. Respondents reported on GSE attendance, the characteristics of GSEs, and their own and others' behaviors at GSEs. Sera and urines were collected, and STI prevalence was assayed., Results: Of the 465 participants, 36% had attended a GSE in the last year, 26% had sex during the most recent of these GSEs, and 13% had unprotected sex there. Certain subgroups (hard drug users, men who have sex with men, women who have sex with women, and sex workers) were more likely to attend and more likely to engage in risk behaviors at these events. Among 90 GSE dyads, in which at least 1 partner named the other as someone with whom they attended a GSE in the previous 3 months, STI/HIV discordance was common [herpes simplex virus (HSV-2): 45% of dyads, HIV: 12% of dyads, and chlamydia: 21% of dyads]. Many GSEs had 10 or more participants, and multiple partnerships at GSEs were common. High attendance rates at GSEs among members of large networks may increase community vulnerability to STI/HIV, particularly because network data show that almost all members ofa large sociometric risk network either had sex with a GSE attendee or had sex with someone who had sex with a GSE attended., Conclusions: Self-reported GSE attendance and participation were common among this high-risk sample. STI/HIV discordance among GSE attendees was high, highlighting the potential transmission risk associated with GSEs. Research on sexual behaviors should incorporate measures of GSE behaviors as standard research protocol. Interventions should be developed to reduce transmission at GSEs.

Background: Persistent high levels of sexually transmitted infection (STI) in Madagascar indicate current prevention strategies are inadequate. STI/HIV prevention based in social venues may play an important role in reaching individuals at risk of infection. We identified venues where people meet sexual partners and measured the need and potential for venue-based prevention., Methods: Interviews were conducted in 7 Madagascar towns with 1) community informants to identify social venues, 2) individuals socializing at a sample of venues to assess sexual behavior among venue patrons, and 3) venue representatives to assess the potential for venue-based intervention., Results: Community informants identified numerous venues (range: 67-211 venues, depending on the town); streets, bars, and hotels were most commonly reported. Among 2982 individuals socializing at venues, 78% of men and 74% of women reported new sexual partnership or sex trade for money, goods, or services in the past 4 weeks and 19% of men and 18% of women reported symptoms suggestive of STI in the past 4 weeks. STI symptom levels were disproportionately high among respondents reporting either sex trade or new sexual partnership in the past 4 weeks. Twenty-eight percent of men and 41% of women reported condom use during the last sex act with a new partner. Although 24% to 45% of venues had hosted STI/HIV interventions, interventions were deemed possible at 73% to 90% venues according to 644 interviews with venue representatives., Conclusions: Venue-based intervention is possible and would reach a spectrum of populations vulnerable to STI/HIV including sex workers, their clients, and other high-risk populations.

This study compared HIV-related sexual behavior among mobile and non-mobile populations in Burkina Faso and identified venues where HIV/AIDS interventions targeting mobile individuals should be implemented. Men (N = 940) and women (N = 430) responded to a sexual behavior survey while socializing at venues where people meet sexual partners in eight Burkina Faso villages. Mobile women were more likely than non-mobile women to report new sexual partnerships (adjusted prevalence odds ratio (POR): 2.07, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.19-3.59) and transactional sex (adjusted POR: 2.30, 95% CI: 1.55-3.42) in the past month. Mobility was most common and associations between mobility and sexual partnership levels were particularly strong among women interviewed in urban commercial towns situated near international borders. Mobile women were most likely to be interviewed at venues such as bars and clubs, making these appropriate locations for HIV/AIDS interventions. Mobility was not associated with HIV-related sexual behaviors among men.

Incarceration is strongly associated with HIV infection and may contribute to viral transmission by disrupting stable partnerships and promoting high-risk partnerships. We investigated incarceration and STI/HIV-related partnerships among a community-based sample recruited for a sexual behavior interview while frequenting venues where people meet sexual partners in a North Carolina city (N = 373). Men reporting incarceration in the past 12 months were more likely than men without recent incarceration to experience multiple new sexual partnerships (unadjusted prevalence ratio [PR] 1.8, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.1-3.1) and transactional sex defined as trading sex for money, goods, or services (unadjusted PR: 4.0, 95% CI: 2.3-7.1) in the past 4 weeks. Likewise, women who were ever incarcerated were more likely than never-incarcerated women to experience recent multiple new partnerships (unadjusted PR: 3.1, 95% CI: 1.8-5.4) and transactional sex (unadjusted PR: 5.3, 95% CI: 2.6-10.9). Sexual partnership in the past 12 months with someone who had ever been incarcerated versus with partners with no known incarceration history was associated with recent multiple new partnerships (men: unadjusted PR 2.0, 95% CI 1.4-2.9, women: unadjusted PR 4.8, 95% CI 2.3-10.1) and transactional sex (men: unadjusted PR 3.3, 95% CI 1.7-6.6, women: unadjusted PR 6.1, 95% CI 2.4-15.4). Adjustment for demographic and socioeconomic variables had minimal effect on estimates. However, the strong overlap between incarceration, partner incarceration, and substance abuse had substantial effects in multivariable models. Correctional-facility and community-based HIV prevention, with substance abuse treatment, should reach currently and formerly incarcerated individuals and their sexual partners.

Purpose: Incarceration may contribute to HIV transmission by disrupting stable partnerships and promoting high-risk partnerships. We investigated incarceration and high-risk partnerships among African Americans in North Carolina. Methods: We conducted a weighted analysis using the North Carolina Rural Health Project (N = 320), a population-based case-control study of HIV among African Americans. We measured associations between timing and duration of incarceration and high-risk partnerships (multiple partnerships or sex trade for money or drugs). Results: Duration of incarceration appeared to be more important than how long ago incarceration occurred. After adjustment for sociodemographic indicators, high-risk partnerships were associated with short-term (<1 month) incarceration of the respondent versus no respondent incarceration (men: adjusted prevalence ratio (aPR) 1.9, 95% confidence interval (95% CI) 1.2–2.8; women: aPR 3.1, 95% CI 1.2–8.3). High-risk partnerships also were associated with incarceration of a partner versus no partner incarceration (men: aPR 1.8, 95% CI 1.1–3.0; women: aPR 2.0, 95% CI 1.1–3.8). Among men, associations remained when adjusting for substance use. Among women, adjustment for substance use weakened estimates due to the strong correlation between substance use and incarceration. Conclusions: HIV-prevention programs targeting currently and formerly incarcerated individuals and their partners may decrease HIV in African American communities with high incarceration rates. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]