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Vegetation is often classified through phytosociology, which defines floristically and ecologically coherent units identified by diagnostic species. Since species- and community-environment relations are regulated by plant functional traits, it is likely that phytosociology has a strong functional underpinning, although the past and current phytosociology does not explicitly tackle this issue. Here we provide an analysis of functional traits of 221 woody species from Northern Italy, diagnostic of 21 European woody vegetation classes (including alien dominated ones). We assessed whether the functional space occupied by selected species corresponds to the physiognomy and ecology of the vegetation they represent, and whether this could help to evaluate major threats, such as invasion by alien species. For each species we collected from Authors' datasets leaf trait data (leaf area, specific leaf area, leaf dry matter content, carbon to nitrogen ratio, leaf nitrogen content) and whole plant (plant height, seed mass) traits, and calculated Competitor, Stress-tolerant, Ruderal (CSR) scores. We identified the multidimensional functional trait space of diagnostic species and clustered classes according to their scores in the functional space, to check whether their physiognomy was coherently represented and mirrored in the CSR space. Lastly, we tested for differences between native and neophyte species and their overlap with classes. Diagnostic species mirrored the global spectrum of plant form and function, and classes showed a functional pattern coherent with their physiognomy and ecology. Evergreen dominated classes showed a similar convergence toward conservative characteristics and the stress-tolerant strategy, as opposed to deciduous forest classes that showed a tendency toward the competitive strategy. None of the classes showed a marked ruderal strategy, thus abiotic stress and biotic competition are the main ecological drivers affecting woody vegetation. Neophyte woody species exhibited relatively more competitive strategies compared to natives, and their invasion could be facilitated in resource-limited or mildly disturbed environments, should climate warming or increased nutrient availability occur. We demonstrated that plant traits and CSR strategies of woody diagnostic species reliably indicate the structure and functions of the phytosociological classes they represent, opening the way to the development of a "functional phytosociology". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Protected areas are recognized as a crucial tool to mitigate ongoing trends of biodiversity loss. The effect of different levels of protection and their subsequent conservation efficiency remains, however, largely unexplored. To fill this gap, we present here an integrated approach that combines taxonomic analysis based on typical species to evaluate habitat quality and functional analysis based on plant traits to define habitat structure and functions. We focused on shrubland habitats across levels of protection in two different biogeographical areas. We found that habitat quality does not change linearly with levels of protection. Furthermore, the increase in habitat quality is characterized by a homogenization of habitat structure and functions, mostly driven by an increase in typical species. Our study suggests the level of protection afforded by protected areas is not necessarily indicative of their quality. A combined taxonomic and functional approach in protected areas can offer a thorough appraisal of habitat quality. • We assessed habitat quality in protected areas (PAs). • We tested it using typical species and functional traits. • We found different results in two biogeographically contrasting study areas. • Protection level of PAs is not a good predictor for habitat quality. • Combination of typical species and plant traits is recommended for PAs appraisal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]