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Background: Exogenous materials may be encountered in skin biopsies as contamination. Contamination may occur during the biopsy procedure in the clinic or during tissue processing in the laboratory. Although the experienced pathologist may often instinctively ignore clear examples of contamination, such tissue may be a source of confusion for young pathologists and those in training. Foreign materials can typically be recognized as exogenous by morphology, polarizability, and the presence or absence of a tissue reaction, but we have rarely encountered situations in which exogenous materials could be misinterpreted as organisms, either by their morphologic appearance or staining properties., Methods: Exogenous materials used during skin biopsy and grossing were embedded in a nonhuman tissue scaffold and prepared into histologic slides. Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E), periodic acid-Schiff with diastase, and Grocott methenamine silver stains were performed, and each material was evaluated under polarized microscopy., Results: Exogenous materials were divided into the following 3 categories with shared morphologic appearances and staining properties: suture materials, plant-based materials, and synthetic materials., Conclusion: We present a comprehensive characterization of the morphologic and cytochemical staining properties of multiple exogenous materials that may contaminate a skin biopsy. This characterization will aid the pathologist by providing a mechanism to identify potential contaminants in skin biopsies., Competing Interests: Dr. Gardner has disclosed that he was a consultant for Bristol-Myers Squibb and Leica Biosystems. Lippincott CME Institute has identified and resolved all conflicts of interest relevant to this educational activity. The remaining authors, faculty, and staff in a position to control the content of this CME activity have disclosed that they have no financial relationships with, or financial interests in, any commercial organizations relevant to this educational activity., (Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Biomarkers in sweat are a largely untapped source of health information. Most of the currently available sweat harvesting and testing devices are incapable of operating under low-sweat rates such as those experienced by humans at rest. Here we analyze the in vitro and in vivo sampling of sweat through osmosis via the use of a hydrogel interfaced with the skin, without need for active perspiration. The hydrogel also interfaces with paper-based microfluidics to transport the fluid via capillary forces toward a testing zone and then evaporation pad. We show that the hydrogel solute content and area of the evaporation pad regulate the long-term extraction of sweat and its associated biomarkers. The results indicate that the platform can sample biomarkers from a model skin system continuously for approximately 12 h. On-skin testing of the platform on both resting and exercising human subjects confirms that it can sample sweat lactate directly from the surface of skin. The results highlight that lactate in sweat increases with exercise and as a direct result of muscle activity. Implementation of such new principles for sweat fluid harvesting and management via wearable patch devices can contribute toward the advancement of next generation wearables.

A soft body area sensor network presents a promising direction in wearable devices to integrate on-body sensors for physiological signal monitoring and flexible printed circuit boards (FPCBs) for signal conditioning/readout and wireless transmission. However, its realization currently relies on various sophisticated fabrication approaches such as lithography or direct printing on a carrier substrate before attaching to the body. Here, we report a universal fabrication scheme to enable printing and room-temperature sintering of the metal nanoparticle on paper/fabric for FPCBs and directly on the human skin for on-body sensors with a novel sintering aid layer. Consisting of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) paste and nanoadditives in the water, the sintering aid layer reduces the sintering temperature. Together with the significantly decreased surface roughness, it allows for the integration of a submicron-thick conductive pattern with enhanced electromechanical performance. Various on-body sensors integrated with an FPCB to detect health conditions illustrate a system-level example.

Pencils and papers are ubiquitous in our society and have been widely used for writing and drawing, because they are easy to use, low-cost, widely accessible, and disposable. However, their applications in emerging skin-interfaced health monitoring and interventions are still not well explored. Herein, we report a variety of pencil-paper-based on-skin electronic devices, including biophysical (temperature, biopotential) sensors, sweat biochemical (pH, uric acid, glucose) sensors, thermal stimulators, and humidity energy harvesters. Among these devices, pencil-drawn graphite patterns (or combined with other compounds) serve as conductive traces and sensing electrodes, and office-copy papers work as flexible supporting substrates. The enabled devices can perform real-time, continuous, and high-fidelity monitoring of a range of vital biophysical and biochemical signals from human bodies, including skin temperatures, electrocardiograms, electromyograms, alpha, beta, and theta rhythms, instantaneous heart rates, respiratory rates, and sweat pH, uric acid, and glucose, as well as deliver programmed thermal stimulations. Notably, the qualities of recorded signals are comparable to those measured with conventional methods. Moreover, humidity energy harvesters are prepared by creating a gradient distribution of oxygen-containing groups on office-copy papers between pencil-drawn electrodes. One single-unit device (0.87 cm 2 ) can generate a sustained voltage of up to 480 mV for over 2 h from ambient humidity. Furthermore, a self-powered on-skin iontophoretic transdermal drug-delivery system is developed as an on-skin chemical intervention example. In addition, pencil-paper-based antennas, two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) circuits with light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and batteries, reconfigurable assembly and biodegradable electronics (based on water-soluble papers) are explored., Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing interest.

Bisphenol A (BPA) is widely used in industrial products. Due to the toxicity of this compound, and to comply with restrictions and regulations, manufacturers have progressively replaced it by substitutes. One of the main substitutes used is bisphenol S (BPS). Despite increasing use in many products, the effects of BPS on human health have been little investigated, and studies on percutaneous BPS absorption and particularly toxicokinetic data are lacking. However, the endocrine-disrupting activity of BPA and BPS appears comparable. Dermal contact is a significant source of occupational exposure and is the main route during handling of bisphenol-containing receipts by cashiers. Here, percutaneous BPS absorption was investigated and compared to that of BPA. Experiments were performed according to OECD guidelines. Test compounds dissolved in a vehicle - acetone, artificial sebum or water - were applied in vitro to fresh human skin samples in static Franz diffusion cells. Flux, cumulative absorbed dose and distribution of dose recovered were measured. BPA absorption was vehicle-dependent ranging from 3% with sebum to 41% with water. BPS absorption was much lower than BPA absorption whatever the vehicle tested (less than 1% of applied dose). However, depending on the vehicle 20% to 47% of the applied BPS dose remained in the skin, and was consequently potentially absorbable. Both BPA and BPS were mainly absorbed without biotransformation. Taken together, these results indicate that workers may be exposed to BPS through skin when handling products containing it. This exposure is of concern as its toxicity is currently incompletely understood., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The human microbiome encompasses the fungi, bacteria and viruses that live on, within, and immediately surrounding the body. Microbiomes have potential utility in forensic science as an evidentiary tool to link or exclude persons of interest associated with criminal activities. Research has shown the microbiome is individualised, and that personal microbial signatures can be recovered from surfaces such as phones, shoes and fabrics. Before the human microbiome may be used as an investigative tool, further research is required to investigate the utility and potential limitations surrounding microbial profiling. This includes the detectability of microbial transfer between individuals or items, the associated risks (such as contamination events) and the applicability of microbial profiling for forensic purposes. This research aimed to identify whether an individual's distinguishable microbiome could be transferred to another individual and onto substrates, and vice versa. Paper, cotton, and glass surfaces were chosen to represent a range of substrate matrices. The study involved six participants placed into three pairs; participants took part in two modes of transfer. Transfer Mode 1 involved the pair shaking hands, followed by rubbing a substrate in their right hand. Transfer Mode 2 involved individuals rubbing a substrate in their left hand, swapping substrates with their partner and then rubbing the swapped substrate in their left hand. 16S rRNA sequencing was performed on the extracted microbial DNA from participant and substrate samples. Quantitative Insights into Microbial Ecology 2 (QIIME 2) was used for sequence quality control and beta (between-sample) diversity analyses and taxonomic assignment. Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCoA) based on Jaccard distances was visualised through Emperor software to determine the phylogenetic similarity of bacterial communities between participants and among participant pairs. Statistical testing through PERMANOVA revealed significant differences in the Jaccard distances between each participant pair (P < 0.001), highlighting not only the potential distinguishability of skin microbiomes among individuals, but also the clustering effect observed between participant pairs due to the potential transfer of hand-associated microbiomes between individuals. The study demonstrated that transfer of the human skin microbiome had occurred between all participant pairs, regardless of substrate type or mode of transfer., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an endocrine disrupting chemical used in a wide range of consumer products including photoactive dyes used in thermal paper. Recent studies have shown that dermal absorption of BPA can occur when handling these papers. Yet, regulatory agencies have largely dismissed thermal paper as a major source of BPA exposure. Exposure estimates provided by agencies such as the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) are based on assumptions about how humans interact with this material, stating that 'typical' exposures for adults involve only one handling per day for short periods of time (<1 minute), with limited exposure surfaces (three fingertips). The objective of this study was to determine how individuals handle thermal paper in one common setting: a cafeteria providing short-order meals. We observed thermal paper handling in a college-aged population (n = 698 subjects) at the University of Massachusetts' dining facility. We find that in this setting, individuals handle receipts for an average of 11.5 min, that >30% of individuals hold thermal paper with more than three fingertips, and >60% allow the paper to touch their palm. Only 11% of the participants we observed were consistent with the EFSA model for time of contact and dermal surface area. Mathematical modeling based on handling times we measured and previously published transfer coefficients, concentrations of BPA in paper, and absorption factors indicate the most conservative estimated intake from handling thermal paper in this population is 51.1 ng/kg/day, similar to EFSA's estimates of 59 ng/kg/day from dermal exposures. Less conservative estimates, using published data on concentrations in thermal paper and transfer rates to skin, indicate that exposures are likely significantly higher. Based on our observational data, we propose that the current models for estimating dermal BPA exposures are not consistent with normal human behavior and should be reevaluated.

A new sensitive non-invasive gold nanoparticle-based sensor that enables to detect thiols in the human skin has been developed. The detection procedure implied the assessment of the color change of a paper sensor resulting from aggregation of gold nanoparticles caused by thiols. The ratio of the intensity of the photo image blue channel vs the red one (in units of RGB coloration) served as analytical response. The main thiol in the skin is glutathione, therefore, it was used as model biothiol and spiking substance. The range of linearity for glutathione was 8-75µM, the detection limit was 6.9µM. RSD≤7% is for inter-day determination of 10μM glutathione and RSD≤12% is the intra-day value. The recovery of 5µM and 10µM of glutathione was evaluated by applying solution, containing thiol-spikes, on skin. The results varied in the range 77-138%. A hundred-fold excess of serine, alanine, histidine, threonine, creatinine, urea, and ammonia; a ten-fold excess of glycine, proline, leucine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, asparagine; and a five-fold excess of valine, tryptophan, tyrosine, and uric acid, which can be extracted from the skin and is contained in the test matrix, have no significant effect on 10µM glutathione signal. Thiols level in the skin of volunteers (21-65 years old, men and women) detected with the use of a proposed non-invasive sensor was 11.6-47.5µM., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The literature of environmental microbiology broadly discusses issues associated with microbial hazards in archives, but these publications are mainly devoted to paper documents. There are few articles on historical parchment documents, which used to be very important for the development of literature and the art of writing. These studies present a broad spectrum of methods for the assessment of biodeterioration hazards of the parchment document in question. They are based on both conventional microbiological methods and advanced techniques of molecular biology. Here, a qualitative analysis was conducted, based on genetic identification of bacteria and fungi present on the document as well as denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis profiling and examining the destructive potential of isolated microbes. Moreover, the study involved a quantitative and qualitative microbiological assessment of the indoor air in the room where the parchment was kept. The microbes with the highest destructive potential that were isolated from the investigated item were Bacillus cereus and Acinetobacter lwoffii bacteria and Penicillium chrysogenum,Chaetomium globosum, and Trichoderma longibrachiatum fungi. The presence of the B. cereuss train was particularly interesting since, under appropriate conditions, it leads to complete parchment degradation within several days., (Copyright © 2016, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.)

A risk assessment study of seven phthalates in paper diapers for newborn babies produced in Japan was performed. The diapers were purchased and the contents of the seven phthalates were determined and estimated amounts of exposure were calculated based on the eluted rate into artificial medium of urine or sweat, average weight of infants, and frequency of use. Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate and di-n-butyl phthalate were detected in the topsheets and determined to be 0.6 μg/g and 0.2 μg/g, respectively. The daily estimated exposure volume was calculated to be in the range of 1.86 × 10(-10)-2.98 × 10(-6) mg/kg/day as follows: content of seven phthalates in the topsheet (0.1-1 μg/g) × eluted rate of phthalates into artificial sweat (0.0006-2.4%) × weight of the topsheet of a diaper (1.5 g) × the number of diapers used per day (12 sheets) × skin absorption rate (0.005-0.1)/average body weight (2.9 kg). For hazard assessment, we used 0.2-300 mg/kg/day for the seven phthalates based on the data available at international agencies. The margin of exposure to the seven phthalates was 6.71 × 10(4)-1.99 × 10(11), indicating that the risk of exposure to phthalates from the diapers produced in Japan was negligible., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

A thin and flexible paper-based skin patch was developed for the diagnostic screening of cystic fibrosis. It utilized a unique combination of both anion exchange and pH test papers to enable the quantitative, colorimetric and on-skin detection of sweat anions.

To date, heat conduction from heat sources to tissue has been estimated by complex mathematical modeling. In the present study, we developed an intuitive in vitro skin burn model that illustrates heat conduction patterns inside the skin. This was composed of tightly compressed thermal papers with compression frames. Heat flow through the model left a trace by changing the color of thermal papers. These were digitized and three-dimensionally reconstituted to reproduce the heat conduction patterns in the skin. For standardization, we validated K91HG-CE thermal paper using a printout test and bivariate correlation analysis. We measured the papers' physical properties and calculated the estimated depth of heat conduction using Fourier's equation. Through contact burns of 5, 10, 15, 20, and 30 seconds on porcine skin and our burn model using a heated brass comb, and comparing the burn wound and heat conduction trace, we validated our model. The heat conduction pattern correlation analysis (intraclass correlation coefficient: 0.846, p < 0.001) and the heat conduction depth correlation analysis (intraclass correlation coefficient: 0.93, p < 0.001) showed statistically significant high correlations between the porcine burn wound and our model. Our model showed good correlation with porcine skin burn injury and replicated its heat conduction patterns., (© 2014 by the Wound Healing Society.)

Traditionally, total skin electron patients remove all clothing for treatment. It is generally assumed that this is best for the treatment of superficial skin lesions out of concern clothing may significantly perturb dose. We investigate the dosimetric effect of patient gowns and determine the necessity of treating patients naked. Using GAFCHROMIC EBT2 film, dose to a cylindrical phantom was measured with cloth, paper, and tri-layer cloth gowns, compared to no covering. A 6 MeV electron beam with spoiler accessory was used at ~ 4 meters source-to-skin distance. The gantry was angled at 248° and 292°. The phantom was rotated at -60°, 0°, and 60° relative to the beam's central axis, simulating the Stanford technique. This was also repeated for films sandwiched between the phantom's discs. Using a Markus chamber, the effect of air gaps of 0 to 5 cm in cloth and paper gowns was measured. The water equivalent attenuation of the gowns was determined through transmission studies. Compared to no covering, films placed on the phantom surface revealed an average increase of 0.8% in dose for cloth, 1.8% for tri-layered cloth, and 0.7% for paper. Films sandwiched within the phantom showed only slight shift of the percent depth-dose curves. Markus chamber readings revealed 1.4% for tri-layered cloth, and &lt; 0.2% for single layer cloth or paper. Air gaps appeared to have a minimal effect. Transmission measurements found that one layer of cloth is equal to 0.2mm of solid water. Cloth and paper gowns appear to slightly increase the dose to the skin, but will not introduce any significant dose perturbation (&lt;1%). Gowns having folds and extra layers will have a small additional perturbation (&lt;2%). To minimize perturbation, one should smooth out any folds or remove any pockets that form extra layers on the gown.

Background: The ideal gentle cleansing product is one that effectively removes soils while minimizing damage to the skin. Thus, measuring physical abrasion caused by cleansing tissues is critical to the continued development of gentle cleansing products. Current analysis of cleansing materials for skin gentleness is time consuming and requires expensive human subject testing. This report describes the development of a rapid and inexpensive bench assay for the assessment of skin abrasion caused by wiping., Methods: Coefficient of friction (COF) evaluations using bench methods were compared with results from clinical studies of repeated wiping and with confocal visualizations of excised skin. A Monitor/Slip and Friction instrument (model 32-06; TMI, Amityville, NY, USA) was used to measure tissue friction on simulated skin (Vitro-Skin, N19-5X; IMS, Milford, CT, USA). Clinical data from a 4-day repetitive forearm wiping study measuring transepidermal water loss (TEWL) in 30 subjects was compared with results from the bench top assay. In addition, excised skin samples were also treated using the COF bench assay and examined using confocal microscopy to visualize stratum corneum damage caused by wiping., Results: Using the bench COF assay, we were able to distinguish between bath tissue codes by comparing average static friction value (ASFV) for the test codes, where lower ASFV indicated less abrasive tissue. The ASFV followed the same gentleness trend observed in the clinical study. Confocal microscopy of excised skin wiped with the same materials indicated stratum corneum damage consistent with the bench COF and clinical TEWL observations., Conclusion: We observed significant correlation between bench and clinical methods for measuring skin damage caused by wiping of skin with tissue. The bench method will facilitate rapid and inexpensive skin gentleness assessment of cleansing materials., (© 2012 John Wiley & Sons A/S.)

Aims and Objectives: The aims of this study were to measure skin moisture and transepidermal water loss after application of uncoated paper and to compare skin moisture and transepidermal water loss after use of uncoated paper and disposable underpads., Study Design: The study was a cross-over, prospective, open-labeled, randomized trial., Sample and Setting: Bedridden patients aged≥18 years at a medical center in Korea were included. Treatment order was randomly assigned using block randomization, with a block size of 4 and an assignment rate of one-by-one., Methods: Skin moisture was measured using a Corneometer 825 and transepidermal water loss was measured using a Tewameter 300., Results: Skin moisture after application of an uncoated paper was significantly lower than observed after application of a disposable underpad (mean 40.6 and SD 13.1 vs. mean 64.6 and SD 23.7, p<0.001). Transepidermal water loss also showed greater health scores after using uncoated paper (mean 11.1 and SD 5.7 g/m2/hour) than after applying a disposable underpad (mean 23.2 and SD 11.1 g/m2 /hour, p<0.001). There were no statistical between-group differences in room temperature, relative humidity, and body temperature., Conclusion: We found that uncoated paper was helpful in avoiding excessive moisture without adverse effects., Relevance to Clinical Practice: As indicated by the results of this study, uncoated paper can be applied to bed-ridden patients who required incontinence care. Nurses may consider using uncoated paper as one of nursing methods in the routine care of bed-ridden patients for moisture control., (© 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.)

Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is a major vectorborne disease in Panama. In this study, the diagnostic performance and usefulness of two DNA extraction procedures from skin scraping samples collected on FTA filter paper for subsequent PCR diagnosis of CL was evaluated. A positive CL laboratory diagnosis was based on a positive parasitological test (Giemsa-stained smears or in vitro culture) and/or positive PCR test performed from skin scrapings collected in TE buffer (PCR-TE). Of 100 patients with skin lesions suggestive of CL, 82 (82%) were confirmed as CL positive. The sensitivity was calculated for each of the PCR approaches from samples collected on filter paper. The highest sensitivity was achieved by PCR-FTA processed by Chelex 100 (PCR-Chelex) (0.94). PCR-FTA extracted using the FTA purification reagent presented a lower sensitivity (0.60). Good concordance between routine PCR-TE and PCR-Chelex was observed (percent agreement=0.88, κ index=0.65). In conclusion, use of FTA filter paper for skin scraping collection combined with PCR is a reliable and convenient method for CL diagnosis in Panama, with comparable performance to the routine PCR method and with improved sensitivity compared with those of conventional parasitological methods., (Copyright © 2012 Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Of 13 thermal printing papers analyzed, 11 contained 8-17 g/kg bisphenol A (BPA). When taking hold of a receipt consisting of thermal printing paper for 5 s, roughly 1 microg BPA (0.2-6 microg) was transferred to the forefinger and the middle finger if the skin was rather dry and about ten times more if these fingers were wet or very greasy. This amount transferred to dry skin was neither significantly increased when taking hold of the paper at up to 10 sites, nor reduced when BPA-free paper was contacted afterwards. After 60-90 min, BPA applied to the skin as a solution in ethanol was only partially or no longer at all extractable with ethanol, whereas BPA transferred to the skin by holding thermal printer paper remained largely extractable after 2 h. This suggests that penetration of the skin depends on the conditions. Extractability experiments did not enable us to conclude whether BPA passes through the skin, but indicated that it can enter the skin to such a depth that it can no longer be washed off. If this BPA ends up in the human metabolism, exposure of a person repeatedly touching thermal printer paper for 10 h/day, such as at a cash register, could reach 71 microg/day, which is 42 times less than the present tolerable daily intake (TDI). However, if more than just the finger pads contact the BPA-containing paper or a hand cream enhances permeability of the skin, this margin might be smaller.

This study compares two methods for estimating static friction coefficients for skin. In the first method, referred to as the 'tilt method', a hand supporting a flat object is tilted until the object slides. The friction coefficient is estimated as the tangent of the angle of the object at the slip. The second method estimates the friction coefficient as the pull force required to begin moving a flat object over the surface of the hand, divided by object weight. Both methods were used to estimate friction coefficients for 12 subjects and three materials (cardboard, aluminium, rubber) against a flat hand and against fingertips. No differences in static friction coefficients were found between the two methods, except for that of rubber, where friction coefficient was 11% greater for the tilt method. As with previous studies, the friction coefficients varied with contact force and contact area. Static friction coefficient data are needed for analysis and design of objects that are grasped or manipulated with the hand. The tilt method described in this study can easily be used by ergonomic practitioners to estimate static friction coefficients in the field in a timely manner.

This study was conducted to evaluate the pretreatment effects of different in vivo moxibustion on the permeation of a model high molecular compound, FITC-dextran, with a mean molecular weight of 4 kDa (FD-4), through excised hairless rat skin. Direct or indirect moxibustion (0.10 g moxa) was pretreated consecutively 4 times every 5 min on the abdomen of hairless rats, and the permeation of FD-4 was determined through the excised skin over 8h from 30 min after starting the first moxibustion. This consecutive moxibustion pretreatment showed a significant increase in the skin temperature as well as skin permeation of FD-4 compared with the control group (no moxibustion pretreatment). Quantitative parameters showed an increase in skin temperature and skin permeation: the area under the skin temperature over control temperature-time curve during one burning cycle (5.0 min) (AUCtemp) or the maximum skin temperature during moxibustion (Tmax) and the cumulative amount of FD-4 permeated through skin over 8h (Q8) or steady-state flux were increased by moxibustion pretreatment. Then, the effect of pedestal thickness (distance from the moxa cylinder and skin surface), shape of the moxa cylinder (5mm diameter, 13 mm height or 9 mm diameter, 7 mm height), burning materials (moxa or aromatic incense), pedestal component (paper, potato or ginger) and moxibustion pretreatment method (direct or indirect moxibustion) was evaluated on the AUCtemp or Tmax and Q8 or flux. The amount of protein leached from the skin surface was also determined as an inflammatory index by this moxibustion pretreatment. When the skin temperature was increased to 60 degrees C, the Q8 or flux as well as the amount of protein leached were markedly increased. When the skin temperature was controlled to 42 to 45 degrees C by an adequate selection of pedestal thickness, shape of the moxa cylinder, burning materials, pedestal component and moxibustion pretreatment method, on the other hand, protein leaching remained unaltered, but the Q8 or flux significantly increased with the Tmax. This study thus provides credible evidence that moxibustion pretreatment increases the skin permeation of high molecular compounds.

The need for mapping skin doses during fluoroscopically-guided X-ray procedures has been described by a number of institutions and experts. Different large photographic or X-ray films placed on the patient's skin have been found to be useful for recording doses up to 1.0-2.0 Gy - depending on the film - and up to 15 Gy using radiochromic films. Though the upper limit of the film sensitivity is seldom exceeded during interventional procedures, the main disadvantage of the X-ray films is still the excessive sensitivity for long, high dose procedures. Radiochromic films show poor definition for doses below 0.5 Gy and are expensive. The goal of the present paper is to analyse the possibilities of using common resin-coated photographic paper for this purpose. Sensitometric curves obtained with different paper types processed in conventional X-ray film automatic processors demonstrate that some of them can be used with better results than X-ray films at a very low cost. Doses from about 10 mGy to near 3.0 Gy can be measured with good accuracy using a variety of glossy photographic papers.

The extent of probable intake of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (dioxins) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (furans) from exposure to process liquor, effluent, sludge, and pulp contaminated with dioxins/furans in pulp mills was examined. It is expected that intake of dioxins/furans by skin exposure may exceed their intake by inhalation. Limiting skin exposure to these chemicals should receive similar emphasis as inhalation exposure to volatile chemicals. Because of an inadequate scientific data base, assumptions erring toward safety had to be made in estimating the intake from potential exposures. Therefore, the calculated intakes are likely to be overestimates.

In severe cases of acne conglobata the use of substances which considerably reduce the sebum excretion rate, such as 13-cis-retinoic acid, is reasonable. To monitor the effect of such preparation a noninvasive and accurate method for measuring skin surface lipids (SSLs) is required. A new modified photometric quantification of SSLs sampled using the cigarette paper method based on reaction with phosphovanilic reagent was introduced. Our overall results indicate that a 3-h SSLs assessment measured photometrically is as accurate as the gravimetric technique; it is reproducible in situations with low and high levels of SSLs.

In an experiment on skin rash caused by diapers, adult skin was used to compare the effects of disposable diapers (A; Pampers), conventional disposable diapers (B), and cotton diapers. Pieces of each type of diaper measuring 2 X 2 cm and containing 0.2 ml saline solution were pasted on forearm skin for 5 h. Water content of the corneum was measured with an impedance meter 1 h after the pieces were removed. Results were excellent for diapers A and B: there were no significant differences observed in water content of the corneum when A and B were compared with conventional cotton diapers. The advantages of disposable diapers were confirmed in infants.

The effect of occlusion on the carbon dioxide (CO2) emission rate (CDER) of human skin was determined. Occlusive plastic tape elevated the CDER 4.5 times (90nl/cm2/hr) over the normal CDER (20nl/cm2/hr). This increase was noted within a 3-hour period. Non-occlusive paper tape had no effect on CDER. Quantitation of the amount of CO2 under plastic tape revealed that CO2 was present at a concentration of 8-10%. Removal of the plastic tape after 24 hours allowed the CDER to return to approximately normal values within 2 hours. The mechanism by which occlusive plastic tape mediates this dramatic effect on CDER as well as the significance of elevated CO2 concentrations under occlusion are discussed.