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Background and Objective: The contribution of non-anatomical factors, such as ventilatory control instability (i.e. LG), to the pathogenesis of obstructive SDB in children is unclear. Therefore, we aimed to identify the relationship between LG and severity of SDB, demographic, anthropometric and anatomical characteristics in a clinically representative cohort of children., Methods: Children (aged 3-18 years) with various severities of SDB (n = 110) and non-snoring controls (n = 36) were studied. Children were grouped according to their OAHI. Anthropometric and upper airway anatomical characteristics were measured. Spontaneous sighs were identified on polysomnography and LG, a measure of the sensitivity of the negative feedback loop that controls ventilation, was estimated by fitting a mathematical model of ventilatory control to the post-sigh ventilatory pattern., Results: There was no difference in LG between controls and any of the SDB severity groups. However, LG was significantly lower in children with larger tonsils (tonsil grade 4) compared with children with smaller tonsils (tonsil grade 1) (median LG (range): 0.25 (0.20-0.42) vs 0.32 (0.25-0.44); P = 0.009) and in children with a modified Mallampati score of class III/IV compared with class I (0.28 (0.24-0.33) vs 0.37 (0.27-0.44); P = 0.009)., Conclusion: A direct relationship was not found between the severity of paediatric SDB and LG. However, an altered ventilatory control sensitivity may contribute to SDB in a subgroup of children depending on their degree of anatomical compromise of the airway., (© 2020 Asian Pacific Society of Respirology.)

Purpose: Sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) in children has been associated with craniofacial characteristics. Facial photography provides a radiation-free means of estimating facial morphology through facial landmark analysis. Our objective was to determine whether facial analysis provides information about SDB severity. Specifically, we aimed to determine whether facial photographic measurements differ with SDB status, or were associated with SDB severity., Methods: Single-center cohort of children undergoing overnight polysomnography for assessment of SDB; non-snoring controls were recruited from the community to undergo polysomnography. Standardized front and lateral facial photographs were analyzed according to previously published protocols. Multivariate analysis of variance was used to determine if facial measurements differed between SDB groups and controls. Linear regression was performed to determine if facial measurements were associated with SDB severity., Results: Seventy-eight children (9 controls, 17 primary snoring, 23 mild SDB, 27 moderate-severe SDB) were included. Facial angles and upper-to-lower face height ratio showed variation between SDB groups (p = 0.038). Facial measurements related to SDB severity, specifically an increased cervicomental angle (p = 0.001), and increased lower-to-upper face height (p = 0.006)., Conclusion: Evaluation of craniofacial features using clinical photography is feasible. Preliminary investigation shows some relationship with SBD severity. Further work is needed to determine if craniofacial photography is useful for stratifying SDB risk in children.

Background: It has been suggested that impaired dissipation of slow-wave activity (SWA) in children with sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) may be a potential mechanism for daytime dysfunction. We aimed to examine whether resolution of SDB resulted in normalisation of SWA dissipation and whether this was associated with improved cognition and behaviour., Methods: Children (aged 3-6 y) diagnosed with SDB and age-matched non-snoring control children were followed up for 3 y after a baseline study. At the follow-up, children were categorised into control (N = 13), resolved SDB (N = 15) and unresolved SDB (N = 14). Delta activity on the electroencephalogram over the sleep period was used to calculate SWA and a battery of cognitive assessments and behaviour questionnaires were conducted at both time points., Results: There was no change in the average SWA between the baseline and follow-up and no differences between the groups. Cognitive and behavioural performance in the resolved group did not improve to control levels. However, decreased SWA at the beginning of the sleep period (β = -0.04, p = 0.002) and a decrease in obstructive apnoea-hypopnoea index (β = -2.2, p = 0.022) between the baseline and follow-up predicted improvements in measures of sustained attention. Increased SWA at the beginning of the sleep period between the baseline and follow-up predicted worsening of externalising behaviour (β = 0.02, p = 0.039)., Conclusions: This study suggests that resolution of SDB is not associated with changes in the dissipation of SWA. However, the association between decreases in SWA and improvements in cognitive and behavioural outcomes suggest that irrespective of disease, children whose quantitative sleepiness improves have improved attention and reduced externalising behaviours., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Sleep disordered breathing (SDB) is common in children and describes a continuum of nocturnal respiratory disturbance from primary snoring (PS) to obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA). Historically, PS has been considered benign, however there is growing evidence that children with PS exhibit cognitive and behavioural deficits equivalent to children with OSA. There are two popular mechanistic theories linking SDB with daytime morbidity: hypoxic insult to the developing brain; and sleep disruption due to repeated arousals. These theories apply well to OSA, but children with PS experience neither hypoxia nor increased arousals when compared to non snoring controls. So what are we missing? This review summarises the literature examining daytime morbidity in children with PS and discusses the current debates surrounding this relationship. Specifically, questions exist as to the sensitivity of our standard assessment techniques to measure subtle hypoxia and arousal. There is also a suggestion that the association between PS and daytime morbidity may not be mediated by nocturnal respiratory disturbance at all, but by a number of other comorbid, but perhaps unrelated factors. As approximately 70% of children with SDB are diagnosed with PS, but are rarely treated, a paradigm shift in the investigation of PS may be required., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Objective: Little is known of the long-term prognosis of children treated for sleep disordered breathing (SDB) and even less of children with milder forms of SDB who remain untreated. We aimed to investigate the long-term sleep and respiratory outcomes of children with a range of SDB severities., Methods: 41 children with SDB and 20 non snoring controls (mean age, 12.9±0.2 y), underwent repeat overnight polysomnography (PSG) 4.0±0.3years after initial diagnosis. SDB severity, presence of snoring, sleep and respiratory parameters, sleep fragmentation index (SFI), the Pediatric Daytime Sleepiness Scale (PDSS), Sleep Disturbance Scale for Children (SDSC), and obstructive sleep apnea 18-item quality of life questionnaire were re assessed. Children with SDB were grouped into resolved (no snoring and obstructive apnea-hypopnea index [OAHI] <1) and unresolved (snoring or an OAHI > or =1)., Results: At follow-up OAHI was reduced in both SDB groups (p<0.05); however, 54% (n=22) of children still continued to snore, having either persistent or new OSA (n=4). In this unresolved group, sleep was significantly disrupted; % nonrapid eye movement stage 1 (NREM1) sleep and SFI were increased (p<0.05), and total sleep time (TST) and sleep efficiency were decreased compared to the resolved and control groups (p<0.05). Overall, 29% of children were treated, and of these, 67% had resolved SDB. SDB groups had higher PDSS, SDSC, and OSA-18 scores compared to controls at follow-up (p<0.01)., Conclusions: Our study demonstrated that although SDB improved in the long-term, more than 50% of children had residual SDB (mostly primary snoring) and sleep disturbance. As even mild forms of SDB are known to have adverse cardiovascular, learning, and behavioral outcomes, which have implications for the health of these children., (Crown Copyright © 2013. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Study Objective: The impact of the broad spectrum of SDB severity on cognition in childhood has not been well studied. This study investigated cognitive function in children with varying severities of SDB and control children with no history of SDB., Methods: One hundred thirty-seven children (75 M) aged 7-12 were studied. Overnight polysomnography (PSG) classified children into four groups: primary snoring (PS) (n = 59), mild obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) (n = 24), moderate/severe OSAS (n = 19), and controls (n = 35). Cognition was measured with a short battery of psychological tests including the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI), the Wide Range Achievement Test-3rd Edition (WRAT-3), the Rey Complex Figure Test (RCFT) and the Controlled Oral Word Association Test (COWAT)., Results: There was lower general intellectual ability in all children with SDB regardless of severity. Higher rates of impairment were also noted on measures of executive and academic functioning in children with SDB., Conclusions: Our findings suggest that neurocognitive deficits are common in children with SDB regardless of disease severity, highlighting that such difficulties may be present in children in the community who snore but are otherwise healthy; thus our results have important implications for the treatment of pediatric SDB., (Crown Copyright © 2011. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

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Aim: This study aims to determine whether demographic or clinical factors predict obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) severity in Australian children.Methods: Demographic details and medical histories of 301 Australian children (3-17 years old) referred for assessment of OSA were examined retrospectively. Children underwent overnight polysomnography and were classified as having primary snoring (PS) (obstructive apnoea hypopnoea index (OAHI) ≤ 1 event per hour; n = 150), mild OSA (>1 OAHI ≤ 5 events per hour; n = 76) or moderate/severe (MS) OSA (OAHI > 5 events per hour; n = 75). Information obtained from parent-report questionnaire determined the predictive value of the following factors for determining OSA severity: gender, ethnicity, body mass index, asthma and/or allergic rhinitis, socio-economic status and parental smoking status (mother/father/both). Chi-squared analyses were used to compare the distribution of the demographic and clinical factors across the three groups. Statistically significant risk factors were subsequently entered into logistic regression analysis.Results: Ethnicity and parental smoking were significant risk factors for MS OSA. Children with non-Caucasian ethnicity were 36% more likely than Caucasian children to be diagnosed with MS OSA than PS (P = 0.002). Children with fathers who smoked were 53% more likely to have MS OSA than PS compared with those with fathers who did not smoke (P = 0.008). Obesity was associated with OSA severity in primary school-aged children only. Gender, socio-economic status and history of asthma and/or allergic rhinitis were not risk factors.Conclusions: Non-Caucasian ethnicity, paternal smoking and obesity in older children were associated with an increased risk of polysomnography-confirmed MS OSA in Australian children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pulse transit time has been proposed as a surrogate measure of systolic arterial pressure, as it is dependent upon arterial stiffness. Past research has shown that pulse transit time has a significant inverse relationship to systolic arterial pressure in adults; however, studies in children are limited. This study aimed to explore the relationship between systolic arterial pressure and pulse transit time in children during sleep. Twentyfive children (13.1 ± 1.6 years, 48% male) underwent overnight polysomnography (PSG) with a simultaneous recording of continuous systolic arterial pressure and photoplethysmography. Pulse transit time was calculated as the time delay between the R-wave peak of the electrocardiogram (ECG) to the 50% point of the upstroke of the corresponding photoplethysmography waveform; 500 beats of simultaneous systolic arterial pressure and pulse transit time were analysed in each sleep stage for each child. Pulse transit time was normalized to each subject's mean wake pulse transit time. The ability of pulse transit time to predict systolic arterial pressure change was determined by linear mixed-effects modelling. Significant negative correlations between pulse transit time and systolic arterial pressure were found for individual children for each sleep stage [mean correlations for cohort: non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep 1 and 2 r = -0.57, slow wave sleep (SWS) r = -0.76, REM r = -0.65, P < 0.01 for all]. Linear mixed-model analysis demonstrated that changes in pulse transit time were a significant predictor of changes in systolic arterial pressure for each sleep stage (P < 0.001). The model of pulse transit time-predicted systolic arterial pressure closely tracked actual systolic arterial pressure changes over time. This study demonstrated that pulse transit time was accurate in tracking systolic arterial pressure changes over time. Thus, the use of pulse transit time as a surrogate measure of changes in systolic arterial pressure in children is a valid, non-invasive and inexpensive method with many potential applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Preschool children with SDB preserve nocturnal dipping of blood pressure. [•] Preschool children with moderate–severe OSA exhibit increased sleep fragmentation. [•] Cardiovascular effects of SDB are less marked in preschool children. [•] Childhood may pose a window of opportunity for resolution of SDB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Study objectives: Sleep-disordered breathing in children is most prevalent in the pre-school years and has been associated with sleep fragmentation and hypoxia. We aimed to compare the sleep and spontaneous arousal characteristics of 3–5-year-old children with obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) with that of non-snoring control children, and to further characterise the arousal responses to obstructive respiratory events. Methods: A total of 73 children (48 male) underwent overnight polysomnography: 51 for assessment of snoring who were subsequently diagnosed with OSA (obstructive apnoea hypopnoea index (OAHI)>1 event per h) and 22 control children recruited from the community (OAHI⩽1 and no history of snoring). Results: The OSA group had poorer sleep efficiency (p <0.05), spent a smaller proportion of their sleep period time in rapid eye movement (REM) (p <0.05), and had significantly fewer spontaneous arousals (p <0.001) compared with controls. One-quarter of the children with OSA had a sleep pressure score above the cut-off point for increased sleep pressure. In children with OSA, 62% of obstructive respiratory events terminated in a cortical arousal and 21% in a sub-cortical arousal. A significantly higher proportion of obstructive respiratory events terminated in a cortical arousal during non-REM (NREM) compared with REM (p <0.001). Conclusions: These findings suggest that in pre-school children OSA has a profound effect on sleep and arousal patterns. Given that these children are at a critical period for brain development, the impact of OSA may have more severe consequences than in older children. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Background: Surges in heart rate (HR) and blood pressure (BP) at apnea termination contribute to the hypertension seen in obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). Because childhood OSA prevalence peaks in the preschool years, we aimed to characterize the cardiovascular response to obstructive events in preschool-aged children. Methods: Clinically referred children aged 3–5years were grouped by obstructive apnea–hypopnea index (OAHI) into the following: primary snoring (PS) (OAHI⩽1event/h [n =21]), mild OSA (OAHI>1–⩽5 [n =32]), and moderate to severe (MS) OSA (OAHI>5 [n =28]). Beat-to-beat pulse transit time (PTT), an inverse continuous indicator of BP changes, and HR were averaged during the two halves (early and late) and during the peak after (post) each obstructive event and were expressed as percentage change from late- to post-event. Results: We analyzed 422 events consisting of 55 apneas and 367 hypopneas. A significant post-event increase in HR and fall in PTT occurred in all severity groups (P <.05 for all). A greater response was associated with OSA, nonrapid eye movement sleep (NREM), cortical arousal, hypopneas, and oxygen desaturation (P <.05 for all). Conclusions: Obstructive events elicit acute cardiovascular changes in preschool children. Such circulatory perturbations have been implicated in the development of hypertension, and our findings complement previous studies to suggest a cumulative impact of snoring on the cardiovascular system from childhood into adulthood. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Objectives: In adults there is a distinct gender difference in the prevalence and severity of sleep disordered breathing (SDB), however there have been limited studies examining the effects of gender in children with SDB. We aimed to compare the effects of gender on severity of SDB, blood pressure, sleep and respiratory characteristics, quality of life, behavior and executive function.Methods: We included 533 children aged 3-18 years, who underwent standard pediatric overnight polysomnography (PSG) between 2004 and 2016. Blood pressure was recorded prior to each study. Quality of life, behavior and executive function were assessed with parental questionnaires. Children were grouped by gender and SDB severity based on their obstructive apnea hypopnea index (OAHI) into non-snoring controls, Primary Snoring (PS) (OAHI≤1 event/h), Mild obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) (OAHI>1-≤5 events/h) and moderate/severe (MS) OSA (OAHI>5 events/h) and data compared with 2-way ANOVA.Results: A total of 298 boys and 235 girls were studied. There were no differences in age, BMI z-score, SDB severity sleep characteristics or blood pressure between genders. Diastolic blood pressure was elevated in females with MS OSA compared to males (P < 0.05). Quality of life, behavior and executive function scores were all elevated in the SDB groups compared to controls. Females with MS OSA exhibited more internalizing behavioral problems compared to males (59.2 ± 2.4 vs. 51.4 ± 2.3, P < 0.05).Conclusions: In contrast to studies in adults, we identified no gender differences in the severity or consequences of SDB in children, other than females with moderate-severe OSA exhibiting more internalizing problems and higher diastolic blood pressure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Objective To develop and test a screening tool based on the OSA-18 questionnaire for triage of referrals for sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) in children. Study design Consecutive children aged >2y without major comorbidities referred for polysomnography (PSG) or overnight oximetry for suspected obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) between 11 January and 31 May 2017 were included. OSA was defined by an obstructive apnea/hypopnea index (OAHI) >1event/h on PSG or an abnormal overnight oximetry (McGill Oximetry Score 2–4). An 11-item questionnaire derived from a previous validation study of the OSA-18 underwent exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with varimax rotation. ANOVA identified questions associated with the presence of OSA. This informed a 5-question, 4-category instrument, scored 0–15 (the OSA-5), that was tested prospectively on 112 children having PSG. Results 420 children (2.0–17.9y, 43% female) met the inclusion criteria, including 366 complete questionnaires. EFA resulted in a 3-factor structure. ANOVA identified 5 questions from one factor that were independently associated with a diagnosis of OSA: snoring, breath holding, choking, mouth breathing and parental concern. Mean OSA-5 scores with and without OSA were 7.7 vs 4.5 (p < 0.001). Thirty-four percent (60/178) had a total score <5/15, with a sensitivity at this threshold for OSA of 82% and negative predictive value (NPV) of 70%. Similar results were obtained when tested prospectively, including a sensitivity of 82% and NPV of 81% for the presence of moderate/severe OSA (OAHI>5/h). Conclusion The OSA-5 is a simple questionnaire that performs well as a triage screening tool to identify those children at risk of OSA among large numbers of referrals for SDB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Background: Sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) has been associated with impaired cognitive and behavioral function in school children; however, there have been limited studies in preschool children when the incidence of the disorder peaks. Thus, the aim of this study was to compare cognitive and behavioral functions of preschool children with SDB to those of non-snoring control children. Methods: A clinical sample of 3–5year-old children (primary snoring [PS], n =60; mild obstructive sleep apnea syndrome [OSAS], n =32; moderate/severe [MS] OSAS, n =24) and a community sample of non-snoring control children (n =37) were studied with overnight polysomnography. Cognitive performance and behavioral information were collected. Results: Children with PS and mild OSAS had poorer behavior than controls on numerous measures (p <.05–p <.001), and on some measures they had poorer behavior than the MS OSAS group (p <.05). In contrast, all groups performed similarly on cognitive assessment. Outcomes related more to sleep than respiratory measures. Conclusions: SDB of any severity was associated with poorer behavior but not cognitive performance. The lack of significant cognitive impairment in this age group may have identified a “window of opportunity” where early treatment may prevent deficits arising later in childhood. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Objective: Sleep disordered breathing (SDB) is common in children and ranges in severity from primary snoring (PS), to obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS). This study investigated everyday function (behavior, attention, executive skills) in children with varying degrees of SDB and control children with no history of SDB recruited from the community. Methods: One hundred thirty-six children aged 7–12 were studied. Routine overnight polysomnography (PSG) classified children into 4 groups: PS (n =59), mild OSAS (n =24), moderate/severe OSAS (n =18), and controls (n =35). Behavioral function and behavioral aspects of attention and executive function were assessed using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF). Results: Children with all severities of SDB had significantly higher rates of total, internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems compared to control children. Increased rates of behavioral executive dysfunction were also found across the SDB spectrum. Conclusion: Our findings suggest that behavioral, attention, and executive function difficulties are present in children with PS as well as OSAS. These results have implications for the treatment of milder forms of SDB, particularly PS, which is commonly viewed as benign. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Children with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) with recurrent dips in oxygen saturation (SpO 2) during sleep are known to be at increased risk of post-operative airway compromise after adenotonsillectomy (AT). We aimed to determine the extent of desaturation on the first post-operative night in children known to have recurrent desaturation pre-operatively and to compare the extent of desaturation in that group with results in children known to have normal oximetry recordings pre-operatively. Prospective sequential recruitment of 57 children who had overnight oximetry performed on the first night after adenotonsillectomy was undertaken, including 28 with a McGill Oximetry Score (MOS) of 2–4 pre-operatively (high risk group) and 29 with a normal/inconclusive pre-operative MOS (low risk group). Oximetry parameters (mean SpO 2 , SpO 2 nadir, and rates of SpO 2 dips below 90% and dips of ≥4%) were compared to the pre-operative oximetry result. Demographic and clinical factors, and the occurrence of post-operative complications, were derived from the medical record. In the high risk group, the MOS improved in 23/28 children, but remained abnormal in 82%. Conversely, in the low risk group 26/29 (90%) had a normal post-operative oximetry. The remaining 3, all of whom had severe OSA on pre-operative polysomnography, had a lowered baseline SpO 2 post-operatively. Mean SpO 2 was slightly lower post-operatively in both groups. In the high risk group, all other SpO 2 measures improved post-operatively. Respiratory adverse events were more common in the high risk group as expected (39% compared to 3% in the low risk group, p = 0.001). An adverse event requiring clinical intervention was significantly more likely if the post-operative oximetry was abnormal (result unknown to the treating team), occurring in 73% of children with an abnormal compared with 32% of children with a normal post-operative oximetry (p = 0.002). Most children with an abnormal oximetry pre-operatively continued to have an abnormal oximetry on the first night after AT, albeit somewhat improved. While adverse events were more frequent in children with an abnormal post-operative oximetry, half (54%) did not suffer a clinical respiratory adverse event despite having repetitive desaturations on downloadable oximetry. These findings support close clinical observation of children at high risk of complications post-operatively, especially those with abnormal oximetry pre-operatively, rather than focusing on recurrent dips in SpO 2 on post-operative oximetry downloads in the absence of clinically evident complications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]