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This study examined sweat rate, sweat sodium concentration [Na + ], and ad-libitum carbohydrate and fluid intakes in elite female soccer players during training ( n = 19) and a match ( n = 8); eight completed both for comparisons. Body mass (kg) was obtained before and after exercise to calculate sweat rate. The sweat [Na + ] was determined from absorbent patches on the thigh or back. Sweat rate, percentage body mass change, and sweat [Na + ] for 19 players during training were 0.47 ± 0.19 L·h -1 , +0.19 ± 0.65%, and 28 ± 10 mmol·L -1 , respectively. Sweat rate was higher during a match (0.98 ± 0.34 L·h -1 ) versus training (0.49 ± 0.26 L·h -1 , p = 0.007). Body mass losses were greater post-match (-1.12 ± 0.86%) than training (+0.29 ± 0.34%, p = 0.003). Sweat [Na + ] was similar for training (29 ± 9 mmol·L -1 ) and a match (35 ± 9 mmol·L -1 ) ( p = 0.215). There were no differences in match versus training carbohydrate intakes (2.0 ± 2.3 g·h -1 , 0.9 ± 1.5 g·h -1 , respectively, p = 0.219) or fluid intakes (0.71 ± 0.30 L·h -1 , 0.53 ± 0.21 L·h -1 , respectively, p = 0.114). In conclusion, female soccer players' sweat rates were higher during a match than during training, and carbohydrate intakes were below recommendations for matches and training.

Female soccer has seen a substantial rise in participation, as well as increased financial support from governing bodies over the last decade. Thus, there is an onus on researchers and medical departments to develop a better understanding of the physical characteristics and demands, and the health and performance needs of female soccer players. In this review, we discuss the current research, as well as the knowledge gaps, of six major topics: physical demands, talent identification, body composition, injury risk and prevention, health and nutrition. Data on female talent identification are scarce, and future studies need to elucidate the influence of relative age and maturation selection across age groups. Regarding the physical demands, more research is needed on the pattern of high-intensity sprinting during matches and the contribution of soccer-specific movements. Injuries are not uncommon in female soccer players, but targeting intrinsically modifiable factors with injury prevention programmes can reduce injury rates. The anthropometric and physical characteristics of female players are heterogeneous and setting specific targets should be discouraged in youth and sub-elite players. Menstrual cycle phase may influence performance and injury risk; however, there are few studies in soccer players. Nutrition plays a critical role in health and performance and ensuring adequate energy intake remains a priority. Despite recent progress, there is considerably less research in female than male soccer players. Many gaps in our understanding of how best to develop and manage the health and performance of female soccer players remain.

Hypohydration increases physiological strain and reduces physical and technical soccer performance, but there are limited data on how fluid balance responses change between different types of sessions in professional players. This study investigated sweat and fluid/carbohydrate intake responses in elite male professional soccer players training at low and high intensities in cool and hot environments. Fluid/sodium (Na + ) losses and ad-libitum carbohydrate/fluid intake of fourteen elite male soccer players were measured on four occasions: cool (wet bulb globe temperature (WBGT): 15 ± 7 °C, 66 ± 6% relative humidity (RH)) low intensity (rating of perceived exertion (RPE) 2-4, m·min -1 40-46) (CL); cool high intensity (RPE 6-8, m·min -1 82-86) (CH); hot (29 ± 1 °C, 52 ± 7% RH) low intensity (HL); hot high intensity (HH). Exercise involved 65 ± 5 min of soccer-specific training. Before and after exercise, players were weighed in minimal clothing. During training, players had ad libitum access to carbohydrate beverages and water. Sweat [Na + ] (mmol·L -1 ), which was measured by absorbent patches positioned on the thigh, was no different between conditions, CL: 35 ± 9, CH: 38 ± 8, HL: 34 ± 70.17, HH: 38 ± 8 ( p = 0.475). Exercise intensity and environmental condition significantly influenced sweat rates (L·h -1 ), CL: 0.55 ± 0.20, CH: 0.98 ± 0.21, HL: 0.81 ± 0.17, HH: 1.43 ± 0.23 ( p =0.001), and percentage dehydration ( p < 0.001). Fluid intake was significantly associated with sweat rate ( p = 0.019), with no players experiencing hypohydration > 2% of pre-exercise body mass. Carbohydrate intake varied between players (range 0-38 g·h -1 ), with no difference between conditions. These descriptive data gathered on elite professional players highlight the variation in the hydration status, sweat rate, sweat Na + losses, and carbohydrate intake in response to training in cool and hot environments and at low and high exercise intensities.

Purpose: Large interindividual variation exists in maximal fat oxidation (MFO) rates and the exercise intensity at which it occurs (FATMAX). However, there are no data describing the shape of the fat oxidation curve or if individual differences exist when tested on separate occasions. Furthermore, there are limited data on fat metabolism in professional team sport athletes. Therefore, the aim of this study was to test-retest the concavity (shape) and intercept (height) of fat oxidation curves within a group of professional soccer players., Method: On two occasions, 16 professional male soccer players completed a graded exercise test in a fasted state (≥5 h). Rates of fat oxidation were determined using indirect calorimetry. Maximal oxygen uptake (V˙O2max) was measured to calculate FATMAX (%V˙O2max). The shape of the fat oxidation curves were modeled on an individual basis using third-degree polynomial. Test-by-test differences, in the shape and vertical shift of the fat oxidation curves, were established to assess within-individual variability., Results: Average absolute MFO was 0.69 ± 0.15 g·min (range, 0.45-0.99 g·min). On a group level, no significant differences were found in MFO between the two tests. No differences were found (P > 0.05) in the shape of the fat oxidation curves in 13 of 16 players (test 1 vs test 2). There were also no differences (P > 0.05) in the vertical shift of the fat oxidation curves in 10 players., Conclusions: In general, the shape of the fat oxidation curve does not change within an individual; however, the vertical shift is more susceptible to change, which may be due to training status and body composition. Understanding a player's metabolism may be of value to practitioners working within sport, with regard to personalizing nutrition strategies.

Introduction: The aim of this study was to describe maximal fat oxidation (MFO) rates in an athletic population. Method: In total, 1121 athletes (933 males and 188 females), from a variety of sports and competitive level, undertook a graded exercise test on a treadmill in a fasted state (>5 h fasted). Rates of fat oxidation were determined using indirect calorimetry. Results: The average MFO was 0.59 ± 0.18 g⋅min-1, ranging from 0.17 to 1.27 g⋅min-1. Maximal rates occurred at an average exercise intensity of 49.3% ± 14.8% ...O2max, ranging from 22.6% to 88.8% ...O2max. In absolute terms, male athletes had significantly higher MFO compared with females (0.61 and 0.50 g⋅min-1, respectively, P < 0.001). Expressed relative to fat-free mass (FFM), MFO were higher in the females compared with males (MFO/FFM: 11.0 and 10.0 mg⋅kg⋅FFM-1⋅min-1, respectively, P < 0.001). Soccer players had the highest MFO/FFM (10.8 mg⋅kg⋅FFM-1⋅min-1), ranging from 4.1 to 20.5 mg⋅kg⋅FFM⋅min-1, whereas American Football players displayed the lowest rates of MFO/FFM (9.2 mg⋅kg⋅FFM-1⋅min-1). In all athletes, and when separated by sport, large individual variations in MFO rates were observed. Significant positive correlations were found between MFO (g⋅min-1) and the following variables: FFM, ...O2max, FATMAX (the exercise intensity at which the MFO was observed), percent body fat, and duration of fasting. When taken together these variables account for 47% of the variation in MFO. Conclusion: MFO and FATMAX vary significantly between athletes participating in different sports but also in the same sport. Although variance in MFO can be explained to some extent by body composition and fitness status, more than 50% of the variance is not explained by these variables and remains unaccounted for. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]