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Objectives The purpose was to explore the relationship between athletes’ self-compassion and perceptions of their teammates’ self-compassion (descriptive norm). A secondary purpose was to explore whether gender moderated this relationship. Design Cross-sectional, online survey. Method Team sport competitive athletes (N = 108; Mage = 23.1 years; SDage = 4.68) reported their descriptive norm perceptions of their teammates’ self-compassion as well as their own self-compassion. Results Hierarchical regression analysis indicated a positive relationship between descriptive norms and self-compassion, explaining 17.2% of the variance in self-compassion. The more it was perceived that teammates were engaging in self-compassion, the more likely athletes reported being self-compassionate (β = 0.39). There were no significant main or interaction effects of gender. Conclusions Athletes’ self-compassion is related to their perceptions of how often their teammates are self-compassionate. Coaches and sport psychologists should encourage athletes to build awareness about how their cognitions and behaviours relate to others’ cognitions and behaviours.

This chapter describes how group norms are associated with youth athletes’ cognitions and behaviors in the context of sport. The chapter begins by identifying different types of norms, how norms develop within groups, as well as the function or purpose of norms, providing specific sport examples. Theoretical perspectives are described that outline how norm perceptions can act as a source of social influence. The chapter then considers the relevance of norms within the youth population and describes the importance of peers during youth development. Research exploring group norms in youth sport is then described, providing support for the positive association between group norms and youth athlete behaviors, as well as identifying factors that moderate the norm–behavior relationship. The chapter concludes by advancing future directions for researchers interested in exploring group norms in youth sport contexts.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between perceived social norms emanating from two different channels (i.e. coaches and peers) and individual self-reported effort in youth athletes. Female youth athletes (N = 145, Mage = 13.9 years) attending a five-day summer volleyball sport camp self-reported their perceptions of their coach's approval of effort during the camp (coach subjective norm), how many of their peers exerted effort during the camp (peer descriptive norm), and their own effort during the camp. Results from a regression analysis indicated that perceived social norms associated with both channels were positively associated with self-reported effort, accounting for 13% of the variance. These results suggest that both coach and peer normative information may be important external sources of motivation associated with individual effort in youth sport. This highlights the possible importance of including normative information from either source, and suggests that both coaches and peers may be important channels of normative influence. If replicated, the current findings have implications for understanding the social influences associated with athlete effort in youth athletes. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

The purpose of this study was to examine differences in athlete leadership behaviours based on one's athlete leader status. Intercollegiate athletes (N = 299) self-identified their leadership status (i.e., formal leader, informal leader, follower) and rated the frequency of their own leadership behaviours. Results revealed that formal athlete leaders engaged in Training and Instruction more often than informal athlete leaders; with informal athlete leaders reporting higher frequencies than followers. Further, formal and informal athlete leaders reported engaging in Social Support more often than followers. These findings provide preliminary evidence of a top-down approach to leadership among athletes. No differences were found for Democratic Behaviour and Positive Feedback, suggesting that athlete leadership also is distributed among teammates. Results highlight important practical implications for sport practitioners in regard to athlete leader development. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Issue Addressed: Public service announcements (PSA) targeting physical activity arenot always effective at enacting behaviour change. One factor that may impact mes-sage effectiveness is whether the message matches its intent (ie, what norm is being portrayed and received). The current study explored the effects of two PSAs on parents’ perceptions of outdoor play Methods: Parents (N = 333) completed a pre/post experimental online survey to examine the acute impact of a PSA on their perception of how often children play outdoors (ie, descriptive norms). Participants provided their descriptive norm perceptions and then were randomised to view one of two PSAs: (a) the Mr. Lonely PSA,which portrayed outdoor activity as not normative, and (b) a control message, which portrayed outdoor activity as the norm (VERB PSA). After viewing their PSA,descriptive norm perceptions were reported again. Results: A two‐way mixed ANOVA indicated that participants who viewed the Mr. Lonely PSA (where outdoor play was not normative) perceived that children and youth played outdoors less frequently immediately after watching the PSA compared to before viewing it (P < 0.05). No significant change occurred in the control condition Conclusions: PSAs can alter individuals’ perceptions of whether they perceive out-door play as normative among children and youth So what? As individuals align their behaviour with what is typical, PSA developers should be wary of what message is being conveyed. In terms of activity, portraying that outdoor play is not normative may not have the intended outcome. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

This exploratory study examined the interaction between messages conveying descriptive norms and image appeals on adults’ physical activity intentions. Using a pre-post experimental design, insufficiently active adults (N = 204) were randomly assigned to receive one of four messages, which included both a descriptive norm (prevalence of physical activity: high vs. low) and an image appeal (personality attributes: positive vs. negative). The results from an analysis of covariance, controlling for baseline physical activity intentions, revealed a significant interaction. Post-hoc analyses indicated that when the image appeal was positive, those who received the low descriptive norm had greater physical activity intentions than the high descriptive norm condition. No significant interaction was found for negative image appeals. Results provide preliminary evidence that physical activity intentions can be positively influenced even when physical activity is not considered the norm. Messages that include low descriptive norm information may benefit from including positive image appeals of those who do engage in physical activity, if aiming to increase physical activity intentions in insufficiently active adults. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

This experimental study examined the interaction between messages conveying different levels of descriptive norms and positive outcome expectations on university students’ engagement in moderate and vigorous physical activity over an exam period. Using a pre–post design, university students entering a final examination period (N = 74) were randomly assigned to one of four message conditions, receiving a message motivating them to exercise over the exam period. Messages included both a descriptive norm (how many others reported being active during a previous exam period; high vs. low) and a positive outcome expectation (those who exercise during exams report better grades; high vs. low). The results from an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), controlling for baseline levels of daily physical activity, revealed a significant interaction. Post hoc analyses indicated that when the descriptive norm was high, those who received a high positive outcome expectation reported being more active during the exam period compared to those receiving the low positive outcome expectation. Results provide preliminary support for the idea that activity during an exam period can be positively influenced if individuals are presented with normative messages that (a) many others are being active during the exams and (b) many of those being active also are benefiting academically. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Two group constructs positively related to sport adherence are team cohesion (Spink, 1995) and groupness (Crozier & Spink, 2014). Given that both constructs likely share some conceptual overlap, it is unclear how they might relate to an adherence outcome when examined together. To address this, the effect of varying levels of both cohesion and groupness on an individual athlete's intention to return to a sport team was examined using a within-subjects experimental design. Adult soccer players (N = 68) read 4 hypothetical soccer team scenarios where the description differed in the levels of cohesion (high vs. low) and groupness (high vs. low) associated with each team. While imagining themselves as a member of each team, participants rated their intention to return to that team in the future based on the cohesion/groupness characteristics outlined in the team description. ANOVA results indicated that the overall model was significant (p < .001), with a strong effect size (eta(2)(p) = .72). Post hoc analyses revealed that intention to return to a team was higher when teams were described as possessing more versus less of either cohesion or groupness. As well, an additive effect emerged, such that intention to return was highest when imagining oneself as a member of the high cohesion/high groupness team. Although in need of real-world replication, this provides initial support for the idea that cohesion and groupness have additive effects on intention to return. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

This study examined the relationship between message variables and affective reactions with parents’ attitudes after seeing a physical activity mass media public service announcement (PSA). It was hypothesized that there would be a positive relationship between message variables (i.e., personal relevance, novelty of information, and feelings toward sponsoring organization) and parents’ attitudes toward their child/children’s physical activity after viewing the PSA. Furthermore, we explored whether discrete affective reactions were related to attitudes, beyond the effect of message variables. A secondary data analysis was conducted with parental responses to an online campaign evaluation survey (n = 267). Hierarchical regression analyses showed an overall positive relationship between all three message variables and attitudes. Furthermore, two discrete affective reactions were positively related to attitudes. Parents who endorsed feeling motivated or guilty after viewing the advertisement had more positive attitudes toward their children’s physical activity levels. This study represents an ecologically valid assessment of how message variables and affective reactions are related to attitudes within the context of a physical activity mass media campaign. The results provide guidance for the effective design of mass media physical activity campaigns. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

The primary purpose of this research was to examine the influence of different normative (descriptive, injunctive) messages on individual self-reported effort in sport. Adult recreational volleyball athletes (n = 58) reported their self-perceived effort, were randomly assigned through their team designation to one of three conditions (descriptive norm, injunctive norm, control) and then received multiple e-mail messages specific to their condition motivating them to work hard. Participants reported their self-perceived effort a second time after receipt of these messages. The results from a one-way ANCOVA, controlling for initial perceived effort, revealed that those in the normative conditions reported greater perceived effort than those in the control condition. Preliminary evidence is provided suggesting that individual self-reported effort may be significantly impacted by the perception of what others are doing and what others approve of within that environment (i.e., normative information).

Objectives Previous research has reported a positive relationship between perceptions of cohesion and adherence within structured exercise settings. Given that the social determinants of adherence can vary across situations, this study aimed to examine the cohesion–adherence relationship in unstructured exercise settings. Design This study employed a cross-sectional design. Methods Young adults ( N = 125) recalled an unstructured exercise group where they had been participants, and then rated their perceptions of cohesion with respect to that group as well as reported the number of times/month they had been active in that group. Results Regression results revealed that cohesion was significantly related to adherence. Individuals who reported higher levels of task and lower levels of social cohesion, with both dimensions of cohesion reflecting the perceptions of the group as a totality, attended more sessions. Conclusions These findings extend research reporting that the cohesiveness perceived in a structured exercise group is related to adherence. However, there were two findings that were not consistent with previous research. The failure of the task dimension associated with satisfying personal needs and objectives to emerge as well as the emergence of a negative relationship with one of the social dimensions of cohesion suggest that the relationship between cohesion and adherence may play out differently in an unstructured versus structured setting with young adults.

Objectives The primary purpose of this research was to examine the influence of descriptive norms (perceptions of others' effort) on individual self-reported effort in sport. A secondary purpose was to examine the effect of the perceptions of norms associated with reference groups that differed on personal and contextual characteristics on an athlete's perceived effort, while controlling for an individual's reasons for working hard. Design A cross-sectional study (N = 50) was conducted with adolescent athletes playing on sport teams. Method Athletes completed a survey that assessed their reasons for putting forth effort, their self-perceived effort levels, and their perceptions about the effort of three different reference groups (friends on team, teammates, and other athletes within the same league). Results The results from a hierarchical regression analysis revealed that perceptions of descriptive norms predicted individual effort, after controlling for personal reasons for working hard. In terms of reference groups, individual effort was associated most with the norm of the friend group. Conclusions The influence of the perception of others' behavior on an individual's behavior was extended to the sport outcome of effort. Given that it was the norm of friends that emerged, preliminary evidence is provided suggesting that personal similarities may be more important than contextual similarities for predicting the reference group that will influence this individual behavior in an adolescent sport setting.