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Byline: Joseph P. Forgas (1), Rebekah East (1) Keywords: Affect; Facial expressions of emotion; Skepticism Abstract: Does mood influence people's tendency to accept observed facial expressions as genuine? Based on recent theories of affect and cognition, two experiments predicted and found that negative mood increased and positive mood decreased people's skepticism about the genuineness of facial expressions. After a mood induction, participants viewed images of faces displaying (a) positive, neutral, and negative expressions (Exp. 1), or (b) displays of six specific emotions (Exp. 2). Judgments of genuineness, valence, and confidence ratings were collected. As predicted, positive affect increased, and negative affect decreased the perceived genuineness of facial expressions, and there was some evidence for affect-congruence in judgments. The relevance of these findings for everyday nonverbal communication and strategic interpersonal behavior are considered, and their implications for recent affect-cognition theories are discussed. Author Affiliation: (1) School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052, Australia Article History: Registration Date: 25/03/2008 Received Date: 29/09/2006 Accepted Date: 25/03/2008 Online Date: 09/04/2008

To link to full-text access for this article, visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2005.08.010 Byline: Joseph P. Forgas, Rebekah East, Norman Y.M. Chan Keywords: Affect; Interpersonal behavior; Computer-mediated interaction; Affect and cognition Abstract: What role can computers play in the study of strategic interpersonal behaviours, and research on affective influences on social behaviour in particular? Despite intense recent interest in affective phenomena, the role of affect in social interaction has rarely been studied. This paper reviews past work on affective influences on interpersonal behaviour, with special emphasis on Michael Argyle's pioneering studies in this field. We then discuss historical and contemporary theories of affective influences on social behaviour. A series of experiments using computer-mediated interaction tasks are described, investigating affective influences on interpersonal behaviours such as self-disclosure strategies and the production of persuasive arguments. It is suggested that computer-mediated interaction offers a reliable and valid technique for studying the cognitive, information processing variables that facilitate or inhibit affective influences on interpersonal behaviour. These studies show that mild affective states produce significant differences in the way people perform in interpersonal situations, and can accentuate or attenuate (through affective priming) self-disclosure intimacy or persuasive argument quality. The implications of these studies for recent theories and affect-cognition models, and for our understanding of people's everyday interpersonal strategies are discussed. Author Affiliation: School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia

Does temporary mood influence the occurrence of the fundamental attribution error (FAE)? based on recent affect-cognition theorizing and research on attributions, 3 experiments predicted and found that negative moods decrease and positive moods increase the FAE, because of the information-processing consequences of these affective states. In Experiment 1, happy mood enhanced and sad mood reduced dispositional attributions based on coerced essays advocating unpopular opinions. Experiment 2 replicated this effect using an unobtrusive mood induction in a field study. Experiment 3 further confirmed these results and also showed that changes in the FAE were linked to mood-induced differences in processing style, as indicated by memory data and confirmed by mediational analyses. The results are discussed in terms of the cognitive processing strategies that mediate mood effects on attributions. The implications of the findings for everyday inferences and for contemporary theories of affect and cognition are considered.

Are happy people more likely to be cooperative and successful negotiators? On the basis of the Affect Infusion Model (AIM; Forgas, 1995a), Experiment 1 predicted and found that both good and bad moods had a significant mood-congruent effect on people's thoughts and plans, and on their negotiation strategies and outcomes in both interpersonal and intergroup bargaining. Experiment 2 replicated these results and also showed that mood effects were reduced for persons more likely to adopt motivated processing strategies (scoring high on machiavellianism and need for approval). Experiment 3 confirmed these effects and demonstrated that the mood of the opposition also produced more mood-congruent bargaining strategies and outcomes. The results are discussed in terms of affect priming influences on interpersonal behaviors, and the implications of these findings for real-life cognitive tasks and bargaining encounters are considered.

What is the role of mood in intergroup discrimination? In three experiments, people in happy, sad, or neutral moods made reward allocation decisions and formed impressions about in-group and out-group members. When the personal relevance of the group was low, positive mood resulted in faster, more heuristic processing and greater intergroup discrimination. In contrast, when group relevance was high, it was negative mood that enhanced intergroup discrimination following slower, motivated processing, as predicted by the recent Affect Infusion Model (J.P. Forgas, 1995a). Reaction time data and mediational analyses confirmed these processing differences. Results are interpreted as evidence for mood-induced selectivity in the way people process information about groups. The implications of the findings for real-life intergroup behavior and for contemporary affect-cognition theories are considered.

What is the role of mood in the way people explain interpersonal conflicts in their close relationships? On the basis of the multiprocess Affect Infusion Model (AIM) of judgments (J.P. Forgas, 1992a, in press), 3 experiments found a nonobvious pattern of greater mood effects on attributions for serious rather than simple conflicts. In Experiment 1, sad Ss blamed themselves more for conflicts than did happy Ss. Experiment 2 found that in a field setting, sad persons attributed real-life conflicts more to internal, stable, and global causes and did so more for serious than for simple conflicts. Experiment 3 replicated these findings in the laboratory and also produced reaction time data showing that it was the longer processing recruited by more serious conflicts that accentuated these affect-priming effects, as predicted by the AIM. The cognitive mechanisms linking affect and judgments are discussed, and the role of moods in everyday explanations of conflict is considered.

Are memories and impressions about unusual, atypical people more likely to be influenced by mood? Atypical targets were expected to elicit more extensive processing, and mood-primed associations were expected to play a greater role in such judgments. In Experiment 1 (N = 72) mood effects were stronger on judgments of atypical than of prototypical persons. In Experiment 2 (N = 42) mood effects on memory were greater for atypical targets, and recall was also better for typical people in positive mood and for atypical targets in negative mood. Experiment 3 (N = 60) replicated these findings and also found greater mood effects on processing and judgmental latencies for atypical than for typical targets. The results suggest that mood effects depend on the kind of processing strategies triggered by prototypical and atypical targets, consistent with recent multiprocess theories of affect and cognition (Forgas, 1992a). The implications of the results for current affect-cognition models, as well as everyday instances of affective biases in social judgments and stereotyping, are considered.

Does mood influence our information search and decision strategies when choosing a partner? In Experiment 1 (N = 60), sad Ss preferred rewarding to competent partners and remembered information supporting that choice better. In Experiment 2 (N = 96), mood effects on information selectivity, decision speed, and processing strategy in partner choices were found. In Experiment 3 (N = 42), a computerized stimulus presentation revealed mood-induced differences in the latency, self-exposure, and eventual recall of interpersonal information. These results are interpreted as evidence for mood-induced selectivity in information search and decision strategies when making realistic partner choices. The implications of the findings for research on interpersonal relations and for contemporary affect-cognition theories are considered.

Study results which show that a happy mood and a positive feedback about performance on a task significantly influence self-handicapping behavior among people are presented.

An experimental study on impact of computer-mediated interaction on interpersonal strategies, such as self-disclosure, is presented.

A study was carried on eyewitness accuracy and the incorporation of misleading details into eyewitness memory in particular, to explore the influence of transient mood states. All the experiments showed that positive mood increased and negative mood decreased the tendency to incorporate misleading details into eyewitness accounts.

Short-term moods may influence people's verbal communication strategies in conflict situations. A research is conducted to demonstrate that moods can have a systematic and predictable influence on verbal communication strategies such as the use of evasive, equivocal messages.

The influence of social and individual variables on common attributions of wealth was investigated in a cross-national study. Subjects from three countries (Australia, Britain, and Federal Republic of Germany) provided data about their (a) free-response explanation of the most common sources of wealth, (b) estimates of income levels necessary for 'wealth' and for 'decent life,' (c)attribution judgements for the likely causes of wealth in general, and (d) attributions for wealth of specific targets varied by their class and ethnicity. Results suggested broad cross-national similarities in the major explanatory categories but significant differences in the weights given to them. Attributions were dependent on the national and demographic background of the judges, and reactions to target characteristics (class, ethnicity) were also largely nation specific.

How does mood influence verbal communication, such as the use of requests? On the basis of the Affect Infusion Model (J.P. Forgas, 1995a), 3 experiments predicted and found that (a) negative moods increase and positive moods decrease request politeness and (b) they do so most in difficult situations that require more substantive processing. In Experiment 1, sad mood enhanced and happy mood reduced request politeness, especially in difficult situations. In Experiment 2, similar mood effects on the politeness and elaboration of self-generated requests were found. In Experiment 3, these findings were replicated in a variety of request situations by use of a different mood induction. Recall data confirmed that more substantive processing enhanced mood effects on requesting. The cognitive mechanisms mediating mood effects on requesting are discussed, and the implications of the results for interpersonal communication and for recent affect-cognition theories are considered.