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When studying the acoustic wave propagation in a duct, the frequency range can be divided into the low frequency plane wave range and the high frequency range with non-plane waves. In the low frequency range, the wave propagation is one-dimensional and the governing equations are rather simple. The larger the duct, the lower the frequency limit of the non-plane waves. Therefore, also taking into account the three-dimensional acoustic wave propagation is important, especially when considering the duct systems used in large machines. In practice often a harsh environment and immobile structures restrict the use of standardized noise measuring methods. For instance to characterize the exhaust noise of medium speed internal combustion engines (IC-engines) in situ, the in-duct sound pressures are measured using wall-mounted microphones. Then the low frequency range source sound power can be estimated by wave decomposition (“two-microphone method”). Often a three-microphone array is used to cover a sufficiently large frequency range. One way to formulate the sound pressure and sound power relationship in the high frequency range is to weight the sound pressures at the duct wall in one-third octave bands. The aim of this study is to extend the classical plane wave formulation by determining these weighting factors, so that a three-microphone array also can be used beyond the plane wave range. The results from numerical approach are compared to experimental data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The scattering of plane waves by an orifice plate with a strong bias flow, placed in a circular or square duct, is studied through large eddy simulations and dynamic mode decomposition. The acoustic-flow interaction is illustrated, showing that incoming sound waves at a Strouhal number of 0.43 trigger a strong axisymmetric flow structure in the orifice in the square duct, and interact with a self-sustained axisymmetric oscillation in the circular duct orifice. These structures then generate a strong sound, increasing the acoustic energy at the frequency of the incoming wave. The structure triggered in the square duct is weaker than that present in the circular duct, but stronger than structures triggered by waves at other frequencies. Comparing the scattering matrix with measurements, there is a good agreement. However, the results are found to be sensitive to the inflow, where the self-sustained oscillation in the circular duct simulation is an artefact of an axisymmetric, undisturbed inflow. This illustrates a problem with using an undisturbed inflow for studying vortex-sound effects, and can be of interest when considering musical instruments, where the aim is to get maximum amplification of specific tones. Further, it illustrates that at the frequency where an amplification of acoustic energy is found for the orifice plate, the flow has a natural instability, which is suppressed by non-axisymmetry and incoming disturbances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In the study of in-duct aero-acoustic phenomena two-port analysis based upon measurements has become an important method for the plane wave region. However even at moderate Mach numbers (0.2–0.3) the errors in the results can be hard to suppress. Ways of dealing with this include the use of over-determination methods and methods of obtaining more accurate wavenumbers. Most of the previous published work on this subject deals with the passive (scattering) part of the two-port. In this paper, both the passive and active (sound generating) parts of the two-port are addressed, and different methods for the determination of the source data and the scattering matrix are evaluated. For the source data in the form of a cross spectrum matrix an over-determination method is introduced. Additionally, a method of obtaining the mean Mach number from experimentally determined wavenumbers is described. In order to evaluate the methods measurements are conducted at a mean Mach number of 0.2 for two test cases—an empty duct and a mixer plate inside the duct. The main improvements in the scattering matrix results are achieved by discarding measurements from an abundant set, based upon the measured coherence between excitation and fluctuating pressures. For the source part, it is shown that the error in the magnitude of the source cross spectrum matrix can be significantly suppressed by having additional (>2) reference microphones on each side of the two-port. The mean Mach number obtained from an experimentally determined wavenumber yields more accurate scattering matrix results in both phase and magnitude, than those based upon flow velocity measurements at one point and an assumed flow profile. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The attenuation of sound due to the interaction between a low Mach number turbulent boundary layer and acoustic waves can be significant at low frequencies or in narrow tubes. In a recent publication by the present authors the acoustics of charge air coolers for passenger cars has been identified as an interesting application where turbulence attenuation can be of importance. Favourable low-frequency damping has been observed that could be used for control of the in-duct sound that is created by the engine gas exchange process. Analytical frequency-dependent models for the eddy viscosity that controls the momentum and thermal boundary layers are available but are restricted to thin acoustic boundary layers. For cases with cross-sections of a few millimetres a model based on thin acoustic boundary layers will not be applicable in the frequency range of interest. In the present paper a frequency-dependent axis-symmetric numerical model for interaction between turbulence and acoustic waves is proposed. A finite element scheme is used to formulate the time harmonic linearized convective equations for conservation of mass, momentum and energy into one coupled system of equations. The turbulence is introduced with a linear model for the eddy viscosity that is added to the shear viscosity. The proposed model is validated by comparison with experimental data from the literature. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

An experimental method for determining the aeroacoustic properties of side branch orifices allowing for any combination of grazing and bias flow is presented. The geometry studied, a T-junction, is treated as an active acoustic three-port. The passive properties, describing the reflection and transmission of an incident acoustic wave, are described by a system matrix while the active properties are described by a source vector. Expressions for the acoustic impedance under various mean flow and acoustic incidence configurations are developed. In addition, methods for identifying regions where the system can generate sound, by studying only the passive properties, are discussed. A self-sustained oscillation is triggered at one of the identified regions by coupling a resonant system to the three-port. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Acoustic mode decomposition is used for evaluating the damping of aircraft liners and, in general, to investigate acoustic scattering in flow ducts. Classical methods rely on analytical solutions of the wave properties and accept uncertainties due to simplified descriptions of the duct flow. In contrast, the current study provides a wave decomposition method that does not require explicit analytical knowledge of the wave properties and registers a wide range of flow-related acoustic phenomena. A multilayer perceptron artificial neural network is trained to learn acoustic wave decomposition for plane-wave-like duct modes. Training data are the numerical solutions of the Linearized Navier-Stokes Equations, from which the network not only learns the wave motion properties but also the dispersion of sound into the fluid flow. The network can account for flow-related effects, such as turbulent attenuation, refraction, convection, and thermo-viscous dissipation, which are only included in the classical models based on simplifications. The new method is validated for plane-waves against analytical data and experiments. It is demonstrated that the network can mimic the classical solutions accurately when trained under the same flow simplifications. In addition, it can cope with complex flow effects, such as turbulent attenuation, by including them in the training data. Therefore, the proposed wave decomposition complements the classical plane-wave decomposition when investigating in-duct sound with complex flow conditions. An important continuation of this work is to extend the new wave decomposition method to multi-modal sound fields. As the first step in this direction, it is demonstrated that the proposed training scheme also works for higher-order modes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]