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IN THE PAST 45 years, no-one has ventured further from the Earth's surface than the average height of the International Space Station's orbit (about 400km), which critics have characterised as being 'stuck in low-Earth orbit'. Well-publicised announcements on Mars colonisation from SpaceX CEO Elon Musk suggest that NewSpace entrepreneurs are ready to pick up the space travel baton, but to some this is still science-fiction. Space policy expert and professor emeritus of political science at George Washington University, John Logsdon, says: "Elon Musk's suggestion of a million-person city on Mars is almost pure fantasy. Why would that many people want to immigrate to a hostile environment? What would be the basis for a Martian economy to sustain them? Would they eat more than potatoes? Would there be good wine to drink?"

The 21st century has seen a significant increase in space activity, driven by private sector entities using space for commercial enterprises. This increased use of space is not without cost to the delicate space environment. The threat posed by human-made debris in low Earth orbit (LEO) is now widely recognised as presenting a danger to current levels of space activity, and a more sustainable approach is sought by private and public sector actors. This article will evaluate sustainability in LEO and whether the consensus regarding orbital debris is matched by legislative or governmental action. More broadly, however, it will be contended that notions of space sustainability have largely been restricted to LEO. This article will seek to move the sustainability debate beyond LEO, by highlighting the potential risks to delicate space environments that arise from human activity in both exploring and settling other celestial bodies. The article will attempt to reframe the discussion on sustainability, advocating legal and policy solutions that need to guide future space activity to ensure that humanity avoids replicating the problems now found in LEO.

In Europe, much of the built environment is historical and difficult to alter, but in the United States, where the historical record is much shorter, the scope for evolution is greater. No part of the built environment illustrates this better than the interstate transport infrastructure. It has evolved from jalopies and graded roadbeds to electric hybrids and electronic toll collection. Wherever we live, we tend to take roads for granted, until they are closed by accidents or restricted by roadworks. It is no secret that the US is defined by its road network: viewed from space at night, the nation resembles a classical topological network of nodes and links, formed by the cities and freeways. On closer inspection, the links are, in fact, chains of smaller nodes joined together by the interstate road network.

In 1883, when Konstantin Tsiolkovsky wrote a treatise on reaction motion and space travel, he could hardly have guessed that a fellow Russian would be the first to benefit personally from his theoretical ponderings.

THE SOMEWHAT run-down second city of Mexico seems an unlikely place to hear earth-shattering news, but the appearance of SpaceX CEO Elon Musk had been well trailed by the International Astronautical Federation, organiser of the annual IAC. Musk rarely appears at such events, so a significant announcement was perhaps predictable - the sheer ambition of it somewhat less so.

The construction of the International Space Station in low Earth orbit and the formulation of plans to search for life on Mars indicate that mankind is intent on making the space environment part of its domain. Publicity surrounding space tourism, in-space ‘burials’ and the sale of lunar ‘real estate’ suggests that, some time in the 21st century, the space environment will become an extension of our current terrestrial business and domestic environment. This prompts the question of our collective attitude towards the space environment and the degree to which we should regulate its use and protect it for future generations. This article offers a pragmatic view of an ethical code for space exploration and development, as far as it relates to the protection of the space environment.

As part of the creation of a database of space-related terminology, a mechanism for agreement of the terms to be included is a primary requirement. Moreover, once agreed, the contents of the database must be disseminated amongst the various users of space terminology. This paper reviews the problems associated with agreement on the scope and form of definitions in a space terminology database with particular regard to the needs of the wide variety of potential users. It then considers the questions of agreement and dissemination in relation to the IAA's Multilingual Terminology Data Base (MTDB), concluding that a mechanism for coordination of requirements, agreement of definitions and dissemination of conclusions should be accorded a higher priority.

The IAA Multilingual Space Dictionary has reached a watershed in its development: this year should see the long-awaited publication of the Dictionary, on computer-readable disk, in 14 languages. This paper reviews the importance of the compilation and production of the IAA Space Dictionary in the context of mutual understanding between disparate space-related disciplines, and makes recommendations for the future of the IAA terminology initiative. It considers the difficulties associated with updating a dictionary in the light of the pace of both technological developments and the evolution of the associated terminology. It further considers the future of the Dictionary in terms of commercial and production-related aspects, including the potential of the Dictionary as a commercial product.

In the early years of the Space Age spacecraft debris and spent rocket stages were deposited on the surface of the Moon, ostensibly in the name of space science. Although this was not considered ‘pollution’ then, as we look forward to further manned lunar missions and subsequent development, the status of the lunar surface and orbital environment should be of greater concern, not least with regard to the safety of future travellers. By extension, the effect of spacecraft impacts on the surfaces of other planetary bodies and the formation of planetary orbital debris should be of similar concern to the wider space community. In addition to a commentary on the origins and objectives of the Scientific-Legal Round Table of which this paper is a part, the paper presents an initial catalogue of spacecraft impacts on planetary bodies and the resulting debris that may still be found on their surfaces. It also considers the future of scientific exploration and commercial exploitation of the planetary bodies and presents the case for protecting the space environment. In conclusion, the paper calls for the formation of an international consultative study group, or similar body, to consider the issues relevant to ‘Protection of the Space Environment’ and to raise awareness of the subject among the growing body of space professionals and practitioners.

Fictional versions of the Bletchley Park story have sparked interest in an aspect of wartime codebreaking that's often overlooked.

The world's major space companies have undergone continual evolution, through a process of mergers and acquisitions, since their creation from their aerospace parents. Although much of this evolution occurred in the early years of the Space Age, the process seems to have become particularly dynamic in the 1990s, as companies have striven to become ever more competitive in an increasingly global business environment. This article reviews some of the most important mergers and traces the recent development of the world's leading space contractors.

In the past few years the UK has become increasingly active as the financial conscience of the European Space Agency. This is not because the UK government has a wish to spend more on its national space effort; it is because it remains unconvinced of the benefits of certain European space activities, notably manned endeavours. In the absence of an effective UK space lobby, the government's policies have remained largely unchallenged. This article traces the growth of the Parliamentary Space Committee in the context of developments in recent European space policy and highlights the need for an active UK space lobby.

This chapter looks on the development of manned space flight. It features the development of Sputnik 1 of the Soviet Union and the Project Mercury, the first human space flight program of the United State.

The history of technology is replete with descriptions of the development of various types of vehicle the steam locomotive, the motor car, the aircraft all designed to transport passengers, goods or other cargo from one point to another. Well before rocketry was an accepted branch of engineering, successive generations of engineers had succeeded in developing transport systems that spanned the globe on land, on sea and in the air. It was therefore only a matter of time before they set their sights a little higher, towards space. Indeed, as the previous chapter has shown, in the minds of certain far-sighted individuals, space was just another destination in need of a transport system.

This chapter presents the major development in the history of space science satellite. These discoveries were necessary to develop spacecraft technology in a fast-track manner. Spacecraft electronics, particularly, has developed apace since the late 1950s, both stimulating and benefiting from parallel developments in terrestrial electronics. Improvements in the capacity and reliability of electronics subsystems have allowed an increase in spacecraft complexity and lifetime, while continual reductions in the size of components has meant that payloads of greater complexity can be shoe-horned into ever smaller volumes.

The Space Age is a period of technology development in which the resource is outer space itself. Space Age can be defined as beginning with launch of Sputnik 1 on 4 October 1957, from this point on, organised and prolonged activity in space become possible. Launching of Sputnik 1 proved that man-made devices could operate in space long enough to perform useful scientific investigations. Some people think that Space Age is a term applied to a short era of space exploration that culminated in the landing of a man on the Moon.In terms of the 'Ages of Man', we are still in the Space Age and will remain so as long as spacecraft continue to be launched into space.

The early years of the Space Age, from the late 1950s to the early 1970s, are seen by many as the 'Golden Age' of space exploration, chiefly because the period saw such incredible advances in space technology and culminated in the landing of men on the Moon. By the end of the 1960s, all of the technology necessary to send unmanned spacecraft to the planets and astronauts to our nearest astronomical neighbour had been designed, developed and successfully flown in space... and it had been done in little more than a decade. While the race for the Moon provided a boost to many aspects of space technology, there were other social, political and technical reasons for space-related development, as previous chapters have attempted to show. This chapter draws those strands of technological heritage together and looks at the broader effects of space technology on our culture.

SPACE EXPLORATION has always had a fairly high-profile political element, from the Cold War days of the 'space race' to the cross-border collaboration that brought about the International Space Station, placing Russia and America essentially on the same team.

Just after sunset on 5 June 2013, against the backdrop of a reddening sky, the latest incarnation of Europe's ariane 5 rocket cleared the jungle canopy of french Guiana and powered its way towards low earth orbit.

In recent months, the US space industry has been coasting, fully expecting a shuddering halt in the absence of a confirmed budget for NASA. Speaking at a plenary session on the impact on industry of government space policy, Boeing's vice-president for Exploration Launch Systems, James Chilton, confirmed that uncertainty is affecting the way the company does business. While China and Japan back new space programmes, Mark Williamson finds worry replacing excitement for the industry in the Western world.

Mark Williamson ponders the absence of the space industry from the UK's principal aerospace show.

A US space firm that successfully launched its first rocket last month has boosted its prospects as a commercial supplier to ferry cargo and astronauts into low Earth orbit.

I can identify with Peter Wright's difficulties in finding a publisher for his children's book (July p18). My own efforts to place a children's novel concerning the adventures of a group of youngsters on a space station in the mid-21st century have also come to nought. Although, as Wright says, there is a "body of opinion" that children are turning away from science and technology, I do not believe that it is their wish to do so. The problem, as Wright suggests, is to do with a lack of suitable reading material, both factual and fictional. Indeed, my own experience as a primary-school governor supports the view that young children are fascinated by the world around them, both natural and man-made.

UK space policy has often been characterized as nuclear-if not unwise-by industry commentators and independent observers. ‘Putting Space to Work’, a conference presented on 9 November 1993 by the Royal Aeronautical Society (London), helped shed some light on the subject. Sponsored by the United Kingdom Industrial Space Committee (UKISC) and the British Association of Remote Sensing Companies (BARSC), and supported by the Parliamentary Space Committee (PSC), the conference offered delegates the opportunity to absorb the views of some of the leading lights of the European space community.

Faced with the prospect of losing two expensive communications satellites to the vacuum of space, engineers have shown hidden resources of ingenuity and endurance

The image of the blue-green Earth, surrounded by a sea of space, is a poignant legacy of the space age. It shows the Earth as finite, insignificant and fragile, and highlights the precarious position of its inhabitants and their environment. At a time when industrialised nations are taking an ever-increasing interest in the state of the planet, the realisation is dawning that the best vantage of the Earth is gained from space. Here, the author details the observation of the Earth from space for meteorological and climatological applications. >

DBS, remote sensing and communications satellites are returning space to the public eye. What does the next decade of space development hold in store?

Most businesses would be unable to operate without insurance as a safety net should things go wrong. Launching satellites is no exception

Since the unbridled success of the Apollo programme, there has been little doubt as to the identity of the leading nation in the space technology stakes: the USA has won hands down. However, as the 18th anniversary of that lunar triumph fast approaches, the situation is becoming less clear.

Since its launch on 8 August the Hipparcos astrometry satellite has been trapped in an elliptical transfer orbit, unable to reach its intended position in geostationary orbit due to a faulty apogee motor. As engineers at the European Space Agency's space operations centre at Darmstadt, West Germany strive to ignite the satellite's reluctant motor, astronomers are facing the possibility of an extenuated mission.

The tragic loss of the Space Shuttle Challenger in January marks an undesirable watershed in the American space programme and has ramifications for the rest of the space industry. It will be many months before the causes, blame and management changes are fully decided, and could be up to 18 months before another Shuttle is allowed to fly.

All too rarely are the proponents of the physical and biological sciences, technology and engineering brought together in one forum, largely due to their inherent specialisations. An opportunity arose recently, however, for members of the astronomy, earth remote sensing, microgravity and space technology disciplines to compare notes on their individual requirements and expectations of a mutual interest – the Space Station project.

The American space effort seems to be 'weighed down' lately with reports recommending which direction the nation should take in space. Last year, the National Commission on Space published Pioneering the Space Frontier, and a team headed by ex–astronaut Sally Ride produced Leadership and America's Future in Space.

Concern is increasing over Europe's part in the international space station programme and the validity of agreements with the United States on further collaborative ventures. Continual cutbacks and delays, and NASA's recent threat to cancel the programme altogether if sufficient funds are not forthcoming, have worried space station partner. So much became clear as Reimar Lust, the European Space Agency's director general, reported at a press conference at this year's Paris Air Show on his recent meeting with NASA's acting administrator, Richard Truly. Lust has been pressing for an assurance that once an agreement has been signed and money has been spent, a project will not be cancelled by the US.