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This paper describes the lithic aggregates from Sitwe 23 (SW23), a Stone Age locality in a previously unstudied region of the northern Luangwa Valley, Zambia. This area yielded two surface lithic scatters containing abundant artifacts derived from Pleistocene sediments on uplifted terrain and exposed by recent erosion on two adjacent terraces. The scatters are time-averaged palimpsests formed by deflation, but most of the lithics lack evidence of significant fluvial transport or post-depositional damage, indicating minimal horizontal displacement. Typological and attribute analyses of samples from both spurs reveal predominantly simple and expedient core and flake technologies, as well as sophisticated biface manufacture and Levallois technique producing flakes and points that are differentially distributed between the terraces. The artifacts identified in this analysis include types conventionally considered diagnostic of the Acheulean, Sangoan, and Middle Stone Age, suggesting that the collections may document one or more temporal windows during the Chibanian age (770–126 ka). Whether artifacts in these samples were originally deposited sequentially or concurrently is not yet known and alternative hypotheses are presented and discussed. The collections are compared to sites in Zambia and the northern Lake Malawi basin and found to be similar technologically but typologically different. Given the paucity of previously known Ston Age archaeological sites in the region, our work now demonstrates that northern Luangwa has significant archaeological potential and deserves further study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Acheulean has long been considered a single, unified tradition. Decades of morphometric and technological evidence supports such an understanding by demonstrating that a single fundamental Bauplan was followed for more than 1.6 million years. What remains unknown is whether sites assigned to the Acheulean represent multiple socially-independent iterations of the same technological solution to shared ecological (functional) and ergonomic demands. Here, using the 'surprise test', the temporal cohesion of the Acheulean record is statistically assessed for the first time. Chronological data from 81 early and late Acheulean sites are investigated to see if breaks in this record warrant the designation of separate, culturally distinct groupings of sites. No significant results were returned, suggesting the Acheulean to be temporally cohesive and there to be no evidence of cultural convergence from a temporal perspective. When combined with previous morphometric, technological and spatial evidence, the best-fit scenario for the Acheulean continues to be that it represents a single, but variable, tradition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Discovered in 1988 by R. Oslisly and B. Peyrot, Elarmékora is a high terrace that, today, is situated 175 m above the Ogooué River in the historical complex of Elarmékora, attached to the Lopé National Park in Gabon, a World Heritage site since 2007. The site yielded a small lithic assemblage, including mainly cobble artefacts embedded within the 1 m thick alluvial material. Based on geomorphological and palaeoclimatological criteria, the preliminary dating suggested an age of 400 ka. However, Elarmékora could be a key site for Atlantic Central Africa if this lithic industry can be dated absolutely. In 2018 and 2019, two field trips were organized to collect surface samples as well as samples in vertical depth profiles with the aim of measuring their in situ-produced cosmogenic nuclide (10Be and 26Al) content. Results suggest a surface abandonment between 730 and 620 ka ago representing a minimum age for the cobble artefacts. Concurrently, technological reappraisal of the artefacts suggests an atypical lithic industry that should, for the moment, be considered as 'undiagnostic' Earlier Stone Age. This age bracketing may be compared with a similar age range obtained for prehistoric occupations in Angola using the same approach. This age will place Elarmékora among the oldest evidence for the presence of hominins in western Central Africa and raises the question of a 'West Side Story' to early human dispersals in Africa. This article is part of the theme issue 'Tropical forests in the deep human past'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The identification of Oldowan hominin knapping skill levels has been a focus of numerous studies, with apparent variation in technical abilities identified between a number of Early Stone Age archaeological sites. Raw material variability, however, can play a significant role in the outcomes of knapping events as well as in the accuracy of analysis. Implications of such variability are yet to be fully understood. Here we present an experimental study to assess the effects that varying raw materials have on the identification of technological attributes typically associated with varying skill levels and whether it is possible to identify knapper skill levels across multiple raw materials. Variation was tested between raw materials from Olduvai Gorge across and between skill levels. The results suggest that knapping skill levels manifest differently in the material record across raw materials. In addition, we suggest that raw material has a significant effect on identifying knapper skill variation. This has implications for future research concerned with identifying knapper skill within and between early assemblages of differing raw materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Capangombe – Santo António is an open-air site located 596 m a.s.l. at the foothill of Morro Santo António, Namibe Province (southwest Angola). The inselberg of Santo António is associated to the Chela escarpment developing from the Marginal Mountain range parallel to the Atlantic Ocean, separating the Angolan inland plateau from the coastal semi-arid to arid plain. A dissected valley formed by the Leba-Capangombe stream exposed a conglomerate with abundant stone tools assigned to the Early Stone Age (ESA). The site was discovered in 1966 by Miguel Ramos, who collected a total of 1776 lithic artifacts, and further published a small report about the assemblage in 1971. In this preliminary analysis, Ramos focused on cleavers using the "French school" typology for the "hachereaux" in Northern Africa and concluded that there are several morphotypes identified in Capangombe-Santo António with specific features, suggesting the occurrence of a local tradition for the Late ESA/Middle Stone Age (MSA). The study presented here is a new analysis of the lithic assemblage curated at the University of Lisbon, Portugal. A sample of 1017 artefacts was analyzed for this project applying an extended descriptive methodology to characterize lithic raw material procurement, reduction sequences and typological classes. The chrono-cultural model initially proposed for the site is revised thanks to recent advances in Stone Age studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite numerous sites attributed to Early Stone Age (ESA), the emergence and diversification of lithic industries in Central African Republic is still challenging for discussion. Among all these sites, those located near Baboungué village have been reported by Roger de Bayle des Hermens in the late 1960s, and provided artifacts from two localities, namely Baboungué 1 and Baboungué 2. Both sites are situated around 800 meters from Baboungué village within the Sangha River alluvial deposits. Nowadays, the lithic assemblages from Baboungué are stored at the Institut de Paléontologie Humaine , Paris, France. In this paper, we reappraise a selection of 90 pieces from both localities (Baboungué 1 = 26 and Baboungué 2 = 74), which have already been identified and classified by R. de Bayle des Hermens in " Recherches préhistoriques en République centrafricaine " (1975). He used a morphological and typological approach. We decided to apply a new technological approach on these collections. Reduction strategies (flaking and shaping) and techno-functional analysis were applied with a focus on the shaped tools and pebble tools. Even though, the classification made by R. de Bayle des Hermens is taken into consideration in our study. We introduced several new categories such as Large Flake Tools, and Trifacial Shaped Tools. We expose the unexpected diversity of Baboungué shaped tools and pebble tools both in terms of production and techno-function (structural specificities). This paper also describes for the first time the trifacial shaping strategies for Central African ESA, whereas traditional ESA bifacial shaping is absent. Finally, we question the techno-cultural and functional significance of these collections marked by robust to massive stone tools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract An apparently unique part of the Earlier Stone Age record of Africa are a series of bone tools dated to between ∼2 and ∼1 Ma from the sites of Olduvai in East Africa, and Swartkrans, Drimolen and Sterkfontein in South Africa. The South and East African bone tools are quite different, with the South African tools having a number of distinct characters formed through utilisation, whereas the East African tools are flaked tools that in some cases mirror stone tool production. The South African bone tools currently consists of 108 specimens from the three sites above. They have been interpreted as being used for digging into homogenous grained soil to access high quality food resources, or as a multi-purpose tools. It has generally been assumed that they were made by Paranthropus robustus , as this species is most often associated with bone tool bearing deposits, especially when high numbers occur. However, early Homo is also found at these sites. Here we report on two fossils from the Paranthopus robustus site of Kromdraai B, which has only yielded one stone tool to date, that have the same characteristic wear patterns as the bone tools identified at other sites. We also describe a small collection (N = 6) of the first stone tools recovered from the bone tool and Paranthropus and early Homo bearing site of Drimolen Main Quarry. These discoveries further increase the association between bone and stone tool technologies in the South African Earlier Stone Age. However, there remains no direct correlation between the occurrence of bone or stone tools and a particular species being found at the different sites. We then review the place of these bone tools within the South African archaeological record. They appear to be a consistent part of the South African record for around a million years or so between <∼2.3 and >∼0.8 Ma. While they change little over this time, they occur with both Oldowan and Acheulian assemblages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the function of quartzite pounding tools from Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania) using microscopic and use wear spatial distribution analysis. A selection of pounding tools from several Bed I and II assemblages excavated by Mary Leakey (1971) were studied under low magnification (<100×), and the microscopic traces developed on their surfaces are described. Experimental data and results obtained from analysis of the archaeological material are compared in order to assess activities in which pounding tools could have been involved. Results show that experimental anvils used for meat processing, nut cracking and/or bone breaking have similar wear patterns as those observed on archaeological percussive artefacts. This is the first time that a microscopic analysis is applied to Early Stone Age pounding artefacts from Olduvai Beds I and II, and this paper highlights the importance that percussive activities played during the Early Pleistocene, suggesting a wider range of activities in addition to knapping and butchering. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper documents the abundance of Stone Age finds in the Middle Kalahari, both through earlier publications and newly documented sites. Results of several decades of Stone Age research are presented through a variety of projects and placed within the context of previous archaeological investigations in the region. We argue for the importance of open-air sites in constructing a more representative picture of prehistoric behaviour in the interior of southern Africa. • Presentation of abundant Stone Age finds from Middle Kalahari - overview of earlier publications and newly documented sites. • The Kalahari of northern Botswana illustrates the potential of this under-researched area. • Results of decades of research from a variety of projects are placed in context with previous archaeological investigations. • Demonstrates the time depth and landscape variety of the prehistory in this region. • Emphasis on the role of open-air sites in reconstructing prehistoric behaviours in the interior of southern Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This report presents the residts of the first archaeological surveys in Limpopo National Park (Parque Nacional do Limpopo - PNL) in Mozambique. We discuss the different categories of sites, their research potential, and the possible relative ages. Sites dating from the Early Stone Age (ESA) to the Later Stone Age (LSA) have been identified as farming community settlements from both the first and second millennium AD. PNL is of particular interest when it comes to hunter-gatherer and farmer interactions, as foraging communities were reported in the area until the 1870s, and we raise the potential of further studies to elucidate this interaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The examination of lithic material from the late Early Stone Age (ESA) and Middle Stone Age (MSA) levels of Kudu Koppie (KK), Limpopo Province (South Africa) has revealed a range of raw material exploitation patterns and lithic technology. Situated on an escarpment within close proximity to the modern day Limpopo River, and given the high concentration of raw material sources within easy access of the site, KK offered an ideal environment for use by early human groups. This paper reviews the results of a refitting study of material associated with four types of raw material from four out of ten excavated squares at KK. The results demonstrate evidence for a range of technological approaches that are, in some cases, associated with differential use of various lithic materials. In addition, the analysis of the KK refits offers high-resolution insights into the unique qualities of individual technological events including the recycling of previously exploited nodules and, through additional flaking, the coopting and alteration of one type of tool for the purpose of producing a second form of tool. Moreover, this paper also clearly demonstrates the applicability and value of refitting large Early and Middle Stone Age assemblages, thus offering interpretations concerning early prehistoric technological behaviour that would otherwise be rarely revealed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Percussive activities are highly relevant in the economy of modern hunter-gatherer societies and other primates, and are likely to have been equally important during the Palaeolithic. Despite the potential relevance of percussive activities in the Early Stone Age, attempts to study battered artefacts are still rare. In order to establish protocols of analysis of battered tools, this paper pursues an interdisciplinary approach combining techno-typological, refit, use-wear and GIS studies of experimental anvils from Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania). The main aim is to classify types of damage on battered artefacts according to the percussive task performed, and hence identify patterns that can be used to interpret the Oldowan and Acheulean evidence. Our results indicate that abrasion marks on anvil surfaces are typical of nut cracking, while bone breaking leaves characteristic scars and abrasion marks on the edges of anvils. Pounding of soft materials such as meat and plants also causes battering of anvils, producing morphological and spatial patterns that can be discerned from the heavy breakage of anvils during bipolar flaking. By integrating macroscopic, microscopic and spatial analyses of experimental stone tools, this paper contributes to create a referential framework in which Early Stone Age battered artefacts can be interpreted. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

I report here on a micro-residue study of Early Stone Age artefacts from Sterkfontein, South Africa. A total of 33 artefacts was analysed. One part of the sample is attributed to the Oldowan and dates to around two million years ago; another part is attributed to the Acheulean industry, dating to around 1.5 million years ago. Previously, the pieces have been shown to hold micro-residues and ancient DNA. However, due to the great age of the samples, it has been questioned whether the micro-residues were use-related. To investigate this, 1 conducted a micro-residue study on part of the originally analysed sample and on other artefacts with the same provenance; the tools were analysed with a light microscope. Here, 1 first review the taphonomic history of the samples and second, report on the results of the micro-residue analysis. The taphonomic history of the artefacts is complex: biological, mechanical and chemical decay of the organic micro-residues would have prevailed in the Sterkfontein setting and it is highly unlikely that micro-residues are preserved. In addition, the recorded micro-residue distributions fail to satisfy a number of basic criteria designed to distinguish use-related residues from micro-contaminants. There is also an obvious contaminant signal in the form of brightly coloured remains, pollen and ink. Based on these multiple lines of evidence, it is concluded that the recorded remains are not use-related and the contaminant micro-residues probably originate from post-excavation handling and curation. The previous study focused on single remains, whereas this analysis includes the full context of the micro-residues. As a result of the different approach used here, the interpretation of the micro-residues differs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Inter-site technological variation in the archaeological record is one of the richest potential sources of information about Plio-Pleistocene hominid behavior and evolution. However, appropriate methods for describing and comparing Oldowan assemblages have yet to be agreed upon, and interpretation of the early record remains highly controversial. Particularly salient is disagreement over whether the Oldowan is a single technological phenomenon or is more accurately divided into multiple regional and/or chronological traditions, perhaps including a less developed Pre-Oldowan phase in the late Pliocene. Some of this disagreement reflects theoretical and methodological differences between research traditions and some is more directly evidential. Here we present a framework for describing and interpreting Oldowan variation and apply it to three Pliocene assemblages (EG-10, EG-12, and OGS-7) from Gona, all dated to c. 2.6 million years (Ma). Results indicate proficient knapping and a full range of Oldowan reduction strategies in these earliest known occurrences, consistent with the idea of an Oldowan “technological stasis” from 2.6–1.6Ma. Patterns of variation in raw material selection and predominant reduction strategy at each site clearly indicate the importance of cultural transmission in the Oldowan, but confounding ecological and economic variation continue to render interpretation in terms of multiple tool making traditions or species inappropriate. We propose that cultural transmission and ecological adaptation should be recognized as complementary, rather than mutually exclusive, mechanisms in future attempts to explain Oldowan technological variation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: We bring together the quite different kinds of evidence available from palaeoanthropology and primatology to better understand the origins of Plio-Pleistocene percussive technology. Accumulated palaeoanthropological discoveries now document the Oldowan Complex as the dominant stone tool making culture between 2.6–1.4Ma, the earlier part of this contemporaneous with pre-Homo hominins. The principal types of artefacts and other remains from 20 Early Stone Age (Oldowan and earliest Acheulean) localities in Africa and elsewhere are reviewed and described. To better understand the ancestral behavioural foundations of this early lithic culture, we examine a range of recent findings from primatology. In particular, we attempt to identify key shared characteristics of Homo and Pan that support inferences about the preparedness of our common ancestor for the innovation of stone tool culture. Findings of particular relevance include: (i) the discovery of an expanding repertoire of percussive and other tool use based on directed use of force among wild chimpanzees, implicating capacities that include significant innovatory potential and appreciation of relevant causal factors; (ii) evidence of material cultural diversity among wild chimpanzees, indicating a readiness to acquire and transmit tool use innovations; and (iii) experimental studies of social learning in chimpanzees and bonobos that now encompass the acquisition of nut cracking through observation of skilled use of hammers and anvils by conspecifics, the diffusion within and between groups of alternative styles of tool use, and the adoption of free-hand stone-to-stone percussion to create useful flakes for cutting to gain access to food resources. We use the distributions of the inferred cultural traits in the wild to assess how diffusion relates to geographic distances, and find that shared traits drop by 50% from the approximately eight characteristic of close neighbours over a distance of approximately 700km. This pattern is used to explore the implications of analogous processes operating in relation to Early Stone Age sites. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The source provenance of 10 Early Stone Age artifacts from the localities in Melka Konture has been determined by EDXRF. Results show that the early to mid-Pleistocene makers of the artifacts derived the raw material from a source located in their proximity, supporting the previously proposed short distance transport of raw material for the time period. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper presents the initial results of excavations at Kanjera South, located on the Homa Peninsula in Western Kenya. Since 1995, our exploration of this locality has yielded a combination of artefacts and well preserved faunal remains in a sedimentary context that also allows for environmental reconstruction. Here we examine the history of exploration of Kanjera and its significance in the development of palaeoanthropological research in East Africa. We also summarise our findings from the recently discovered Oldowan site. Taphonomic analyses suggest that the archaeological layers were formed at least partially by hominin activity. Artefacts made from a wide variety of raw materials are abundant, as are animal bones. Results of our first analyses confirm that Oldowan hominins had considerable behavioural flexibility and occupied a range of habitats. Cet article présente des résultats préliminaires de nos fouilles au site de Kanjera South, situé sur la péninsule de Homa au Kenya occidental. Depuis 1995 nos explorations à cette localité ont produit une combinaison des outils lithiques et des restes fossils dans un bon état de conservation venant d’un contexte sédimentaire qui permet également les reconstitutions paleoenvironnementaux. Ici nous examinons l’histoire de l’exploration de Kanjera et de son importance dans le développement de la recherche paleoanthropologique en Afrique de l’Est. Nous récapitulons également nos résultats du gisement récemment découvert d’Oldowan. L’étude taphonomique suggère que les couches archéologiques ont été formées au moins partiellement par l’activité des hominins. Les objets fabriqués faits à partir d’une grande variété de matières lithiques sont abondants, de même que les os animaux. Les résultats de nos premières analyses confirment que les hominins d’Oldowan ont eu une flexibilité de comportement considérable et ont occupé une gamme d’habitats différents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Identifying when hominins first produced Lomekwian, Oldowan, and Acheulean technologies is vital to multiple avenues of human origins research. Yet, like most archaeological endeavors, our understanding is currently only as accurate as the artifacts recovered and the sites identified. Here we use optimal linear estimation (OLE) modelling to identify the portion of the archaeological record not yet discovered, and statistically infer the date of origin of the earliest flaked stone technologies. These models provide the most accurate framework yet for understanding when hominins first produced these tool types. Our results estimate the Oldowan to have originated 2.617 to 2.644 Ma, 36,000 to 63,000 years earlier than current evidence. The Acheulean's origin is pushed back further through OLE, by at least 55,000 years to 1.815 to 1.823 Ma. We were unable to infer the Lomekwian's date of origin using OLE, but an upper bound of 5.1 million years can be inferred using alternative nonparametric techniques. These dates provide a new chronological foundation from which to understand the emergence of the first flaked stone technologies, alongside their behavioral and evolutionary implications. Moreover, they suggest there to be substantial portions of the artifact record yet to be discovered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the last thirty years, investigations in the Nachukui Formation (West Turkana, Kenya) have revealed the importance of the region for human evolution studies within an archaeological sequence spanning the period 3.3 million years (Ma) to 0.7 Ma. Despite the numerous sites discovered, little is known about pounding activities during this time period in the region. In this paper, we present an analysis of percussive tools from three West Turkana archaeological sites: Lokalalei 2C, Kokiselei 1 and Kokiselei 4, dated between 2.3 Ma and 1.76 Ma. Their chronological range allows us to conduct a diachronic comparison of the percussive activities during a time span with two hominin genera (Australopithecus boisei, early Homo and Homo erectus). The three assemblages are compared with others from the Early Stone Age and with experimental percussive tools. Despite the stable predominance of hammerstones associated with stone knapping activities over time in the Nachukui Formation, our macro- and microscopic analyses reveal an inter-site variability in the type and re-use of percussive tools for specific heavy-duty pounding activities. When compared with other Early Stone Age sites, Lokalalei 2C, Kokiselei 1 and Kokiselei 4 similarly present a low frequency of pounding tools but a high number of blanks used for both flaking and pounding activities, suggesting that the reutilization of the tools and the change in their functionality was common in the ESA lithic record. • We analyse synchronic and diachronic variability of pounding tools from West Turkana sites dated to 2.3–1.76 Ma. • Oldowan (Localalei 2C, Kokiselei 1) and Acheulean (Kokiselei 4) percussive tools are compared. • Hammerstones used for flaking dominate in the studied assemblages. • Cores re-utilized as hammerstones make up a significant component of the pounding tools identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]