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Background The marginal mandibular nerve of the facial nerve is frequently injured during corrective and cosmetic surgery. Recent or emerging techniques such as the injection of filler materials, botulinum toxin, allotransplantation of composite tissues of the face, placement of chin implants, and submental cryolipolysis require in-depth knowledge of this nerve. The studies to date are not in agreement regarding the number of branches of the marginal mandibular nerve and its relationship with the vasculature and other nerves. Methods This study involved 62 half-heads from cadavers. Results In 22.6 percent of the cases, the marginal mandibular nerve of the facial nerve was a single branched entity and lateral to the pedicle, with respect to the facial artery and the facial vein. In 16 cases (29 percent), the marginal mandibular nerve had two branches. In 12.9 percent of the cases, the marginal mandibular nerve gave rise to three branches. In 17 cases (35.48 percent), the marginal mandibular nerve gave rise to between four and more than 10 branches, thereby forming a plexus at its end. Analysis of this collection of cases revealed that the marginal mandibular nerve was more consistently lateral to the facial vein than to the facial artery. The marginal mandibular nerve exhibited connections with other branches of the facial nerve and branches of the trigeminal nerve. Conclusions The facial vein had a more consistent relationship with the marginal mandibular nerve than the facial artery. This study provides the anatomical bases of substitution, proprioception, and clinical variations in injuries of the marginal mandibular nerve and in their prognosis.

Facial fractures are considered more common in young individuals. However, they are also increasing in the aging population. Investigation of the characteristics of such fractures is important so as to be able to devise preventive measures and specifications for their proper treatment. We carried out a descriptive retrospective epidemiological study. The information was taken from a database of medical files of patients over 65 years of age in the setting of the emergency ward. Patient information was included for 157 patients aged 65 to 100 years. Two-thirds of the individuals with facial trauma were women. Twenty-eight had a prior history of cognitive impairment. For half of the cases, the trauma occurred at their place of residence, while accidents and falls in public areas were not uncommon. The most frequent site for the fractures was the middle third of the face. These facial fractures were serious in light of their location, as well as the associated skeletal and intracranial lesions. The number of such fractures can be expected to increase with time. Their hospital cost is higher than with younger individuals. Preventative measures need to be devised and the treatment should be all-encompassing. Keywords: Elderly individuals, Fractures, Face, Epidemiology

Purpose In the Union for International Cancer Control classification, extrinsic muscle involvement in oropharyngeal cancers is systematically defined as a T4a tumor, although the term extrinsic may incorrectly imply that these muscles are outside the tongue. Our aim was to describe the topography of extrinsic tongue muscles and show that their involvement in oropharyngeal cancers does not always correspond to T4a staging. Methods This cadaveric study was based on dissections of the tongues of ten healthy subjects. Dissections were carried out using sections, and careful macroscopic examination with a 3.5-diopter magnifying glass allowed the identification of muscles from their origin to their termination. Imagery and histology were excluded to stay as close as possible to the clinical evaluation. Results The sample comprised seven men and three women, with a mean age 82 years. In all the ten cases, the extrinsic muscles were located at the periphery of the tongue. The genioglossus was the only deep extrinsic muscle, extending to the periphery and under the mucous membrane of the tongue. As a result, a T1 tumor can invade the mucous membrane and affect the extrinsic muscles without transforming into a T4a tumor. Conclusion As extrinsic tongue muscles are peripheral and submucosal, the use of the term “deep” is erroneous, as is the systematic usage of extrinsic muscles to define T4a oropharyngeal cancers. This study attempts to explain this error, which is recurrent in the different editions of the Union for International Cancer Control and American Joint Committee on Cancer.

Reconstruction of mandibular substance loss by a free flap is a widely used technique. This technique suffers from several disadvantages, including the presence of a second intervention site and a substantial frequency of complications. We have undertaken a custom-made 3-dimensional reconstruction (using computer-aided design and manufacturing) with prosthetic dental rehabilitation and esthetic improvement by lipomodeling of the face. A 50-year-old woman presented with a massive recurrence of an ameloblastoma of the right hemimandible. A cervical approach was used to resect the mandible well away from the tumor site. In light of her refusal to undergo reconstruction by a fibula free flap, reconstruction was performed using a custom-made porous titanium device with dental prosthetic rehabilitation, followed by lipomodeling of the face. The reconstruction was achieved without the occurrence of any complications. The implant-supported prosthetic dental implantation and the lipofilling resulted in functionally and esthetically satisfactory outcomes. Three-dimensional mandibular reconstruction with a custom-made porous titanium device and lipofilling yielded satisfactory results. Fitting of the dental prosthesis was undertaken at an early stage as it did not require osseointegration, although there was a need to overcome difficulties linked with the seal and the stability of the dental prosthesis and titanium support. The duration of patient follow-up was 18 months.

Dog bites are considered to be septic injuries, and their location on the face, with its highly symbolic topography and important social functions, is particularly pertinent. In addition to specific medical aspects, such as their psychological impact, they are also of relevance in terms of child protection measures. In light of the far-reaching importance of this subject, we were prompted to carry out a prospective study, over 13 years, to identify risk factors. Our results highlight specific risk factors, and they may hence assist with the implementation of concrete primary prevention measures against dog bites.An information sheet was prepared and filled out during the intake of patients who had been bitten on the face. Data analysis was performed using Epi Info Version 6.04dfr software to find a correlation between the factors studied and the dog bite to the face.Dog bites to the face represented 0.83% of the emergency admissions to our service. A considerable majority of these involved children, with 68.5% of patients16 years of age, and 33.3% of patients aged between 2 and 5 years. The wounds were multiple and of variable severity. The type of dog involved was frequently a German Shepherd. Strikingly, 91.3% of bites had occurred in a single-parent environment.Our study has determined that the fundamental factors that increase the probability of a dog bite to the face are as follows: the child being 2-5 years old, a single-parent context, and involvement of a German Shepherd-type dog.

Plasma cell granuloma or inflammatory pseudotumor (IPT) is diagnosed by a process of elimination. The precise etiology is unknown, although it can occur after a bout of periodontal infection. This report describes the various stages of progression for this ailment. A 49-year-old woman with no noteworthy medical history presented with a recurrent periodontal abscess accompanied by progressive and severe destruction of the right maxilla. There was invasion of the infratemporal fossa and very tight trismus. Histologic examination indicated a reactive plasma cell granuloma. IPT is an entity recognized by the World Health Organization. A triggering infectious or inflammatory factor is often present. In the maxilla, progression is very aggressive. Treatment relies on corticotherapy, with or without radiotherapy, and administration of cyclosporine.

Although the vascular supply of the occipital region of the scalp is usually considered as depending on the occipital arteries, in our clinical experience the importance of the posterior auricular arteries seems to have been underestimated. Most of the authors consider that the occipital artery is the main artery to the vascular supply of this region. The role of the posterior auricular artery has not been clearly investigated. In order to describe the cutaneous territories of these two arteries, 20 occipital areas have been dissected after bilateral injection of coloured latex (40 occipital and 40 posterior auricular arteries studied), and 4 occipital areas have been dissected after selective injection of china ink in the occipital and posterior auricular arteries (4 occipital and 4 posterior auricular arteries injected). The occipital artery was deep from its origin to the arch constituted by the insertions of the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles. Then the occipital artery was becoming superficial while ascending to the vertex. The cutaneous territory of the occipital arteries was paramedian and median (38% of the occipital area). The posterior auricular artery was superficial in the auriculomastoid sulcus and divided into three branches: auricular and mastoid as usually described and also a third terminal branch that we called "transverse nuchal artery". The posterior auricular arteries supplied the major part of the occipital area of the scalp (62%).

The retromandibular vein (rmv) is an important anatomical element, in radiology to localise a tumor in the parotid gland in relation to the facial nerve, and in surgery as a landmark to dissect the facial nerve and its branches. The aim of this study was to give a precise description of the anatomic variations of the relations of the facial nerve with the rmv. One hundred and thirty-two parotid glands have been dissected by pre-auricular route. The rmv, the facial nerve trunk and its branches have been dissected and described. The relations of the facial nerve with the rmv have been noted in each case. The rmv was medial to the nerve in 65.2% and lateral in 13% to the nerve. In 6.8% the nerve was placed between a superficial and a deep venous plane. More variations were present in our description than in others. The situation of the rvm alone or associated with other anatomical elements is not a reliable landmark of the situation of a tumour either in the superficial part or in the deep part of the parotid gland in relation to the facial nerve. Some authors considered that the predictive value of these anatomical landmarks was near 65%.

Summary Background Facial composite tissue allotransplantation has recently become a surgical option. The maxilla, which forms the upper jaw and plays an important role in facial allotransplantation, consists of the maxillary and facial arteries. The maxillary artery is located deep within the tissue and considered the main artery of the maxilla; however, the facial artery is easy to access. The objective of this study was to examine the territories of the maxillary and facial arteries within the maxilla. Materials and methods We excised and examined 22 maxillae. Of these, 18 were injected with latex and four with India ink. Results We observed that the ascending palatine artery, which was collateral with the facial artery, vascularized the maxilla through its dorsal part. The facial artery vascularized the maxilla through its ventral part with the philtral and columellar branches of the superior labial artery. Therefore, the facial artery formed, through the nasal and palatine mucosa, an arterial circle with a dorsal and ventral pole. Angiosomes formed by both the facial and maxillary arteries were also observed. The India ink injected into the facial and maxillary arteries delineated specific territories for each artery. Discussion This study allowed us to determine the anatomical structures that provide vascularization to the maxilla and describe their different forms. The whole of the maxilla was vascularized by the facial artery, despite the caution imposed by several studies on the removal of the facial artery alone. Indeed, the removal technique was found to be safer when it preserved the anastomoses between the facial and maxillary arteries. Therefore, previous clinical experience and our anatomical study definitively demonstrate that the facial artery vascularizes the maxilla.

We report the one-year follow-up of a series of endoscopic removal of osteomas of the forehead to assess the feasibility of the technique, its functional results, and the satisfaction of the patients. Osteomas were resected in five patients (two women, three men, mean age 40 years, range 30 to 55) using an endoscopic technique. All operations were successful and did not require conversion to open operation. Operating time was 20 to 40 minutes (mean 30 minutes). All patients were discharged on the day of operation. There were no postoperative complications (haematoma, nerve injury, or infection), and no recurrence at the one-year follow-up visit. All patients were satisfied with the outcome and particularly with the cosmetic result. This series confirms the surgical feasibility of removal of osteomas of the forehead and its excellent outcome in functional results and patients' satisfaction. Absence of extensive or visible scars, non-traumatic dissection, and magnification of anatomical structures are its most obvious advantages.

Purpose Composite tissue allotransplantation has become a clinical reality and a major breakthrough in reconstructive surgery. The current boundary of dispute on composite tissue allotransplantation is regarding the full-face transplantation. The aim of this article is to provide a comprehensive overview of how facial allotransplantation has been approached in the scientific literature. Material and Methods The selection of articles was conducted using PubMed at www.pubmed.com between January 2000 and September 2005. The search terms were “facial graft,” “facial transplantation,” and “facial allotransplant.” The criteria of analysis were the category of articles and the presence of 6 items: 1) issues regarding the donor; 2) psychological impact on the recipient; 3) surgical risks; 4) immunologic risks; 5) socio-cultural aspects; and 6) expense. Results Thirty-eight articles were included. The first article was published in 2002. Most articles over the last 4 years dealt with issues of medical ethics. The annual rate of basic research articles was relatively stable. Conversely, the rate of ‘view points,’ notably regarding ethics aspects, increased dramatically in 2004. The issues regarding the donor were found in 26% of the articles, the psychological echo on the recipient in 53% of the articles but in 81% of the medical ethics papers, the immunologic risks in 81% of the articles, the surgical risks in 66% of the articles, socio-cultural aspects in 34% of the articles, and expense problems in 5% of the articles. Conclusion Psychological, immunologic, and surgical risks are the problems addressed most in the literature. Cost, donor, social, and cultural aspects are least addressed. There is a lack of hard data in the literature regarding those problems.