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Investigation of defensive reactions, piglet losses, post-bleeding and recovery time of suckling piglets castrated under automated isoflurane anesthesia as well as measurements of isoflurane concentrations in ambient air and estimation of the cleaning and disinfection success of anesthesia masks.A total of 955 suckling piglets (age: 4.0 ± 1.2 days; weight: 2.0 ± 0.5 kg) were castrated under automated isoflurane anesthesia (PorcAnest 3000Following insufflation of isoflurane for 90 seconds 94.3 % of the piglets and after prior testing of the interdigital claw reflex and possible extension of the anesthetic supply 95.3 % of the piglets showed no or minimal defensive movements during castration. An anesthetic incident occurred in 0.9 % of the piglets, but no animal died. The recovery time lasted 7.3 ± 4.7 minutes (pass 1) and 6.2 ± 3.3 minutes (passes 4-5). Cutting the spermatic cord with a scalpel led to a higher post-bleeding score (p0.001) compared to use of the emasculator. Isoflurane concentrations in ambient air ranged between 4.5 und 28.1 mg/mIsoflurane anesthesia led in over 94 % of the piglets to no or minimal defensive reactions during castration. Anesthetic incidents occurred rarely and no piglet losses were recorded. Therefore, automated isoflurane anesthesia is associated with a low risk for suckling piglets. Measurements of isoflurane concentrations on persons involved were below the internationally lowest limit value. Disinfection of the anesthesia masks may prevent germ transmission between animal groups via this potential vector.ZIEL: Untersuchung von Abwehrreaktionen, Ferkelverlusten und Aufwachphase unter automatisierter Isoflurannarkose kastrierter Saugferkel, Erhebung von Isoflurankonzentrationen in der Umgebung sowie des Erfolgs von Reinigung und Desinfektion der Narkosemasken.Insgesamt 955 männliche Saugferkel (Alter 4,0 ± 1,2 Tage; Gewicht 2,0 ± 0,5 kg) aus 5 Abferkeldurchgängen (DG) wurden nach Applikation eines nicht steroidalen Antiphlogistikums unter Isoflurannarkose (PorcAnest 3000Bei der Kastration wiesen 94,3 % der Saugferkel nach der Einleitungszeit von 90 Sekunden und 95,3 % der Ferkel mit vorheriger Testung des Zwischenklauenreflexes und gegebenenfalls Verlängerung der Isofluranzufuhr keine oder nur eine kurze Abwehrbewegung auf. Bei 0,9 % der Ferkel trat ein Narkosezwischenfall auf, kein Tier verendete. Die Aufwachphase dauerte 7,3 ± 4,7 Minuten (DG 1) bzw. 6,2 ± 3,3 Minuten (DG 4–5). Das Absetzen des Samenstrangs mittels Skalpells führte zu einem höheren Nachblutungsscore (p0,001) als die Anwendung des Emaskulators. Die Isoflurankonzentrationen in der Umgebungsluft lagen zwischen 4,5 und 28,1 mg/mDie Isoflurannarkose führte bei über 94 % der Ferkel zu keiner bzw. einer geringgradigen Abwehrreaktion während der Kastration. Narkosezwischenfälle waren selten und hatten keine vermehrten Ferkelverluste zur Folge. Somit ist die automatisierte Isoflurannarkose bei sorgfältiger Anwendung mit einem geringen Risiko für die Saugferkel verbunden. Die Isoflurankonzentration in der Atemluft der beteiligten Personen lag unter dem international niedrigsten Grenzwert. Die Desinfektion der Narkosemasken könnte eine Keimübertragung zwischen Tiergruppen über diesen potenziellen Vektor verhindern.

Surgical castration of male piglets without analgesia is a painful procedure. This prospective, randomized and double-blinded study aimed to evaluate the analgesic effects of four different local anesthetics for piglet castration during the first week of life. In total, 54 piglets aged 3 to 7 days were distributed into 6 treatment groups: handling (H); castration without pain relief (sodium chloride, NaCl); and castration with a local anesthetic: 4% procaine (P), 2% lidocaine (L), 0.5% bupivacaine (B) or 20 mg/ml mepivacaine (M). By excluding stress and fear as disruptive factors via a minimum anesthesia model, all piglets received individual minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) isoflurane anesthesia. Twenty minutes before castration, all treatment groups except group H received one injection per testis. Then, 0.5 ml of a local anesthetic or NaCl was injected intratesticularly (i.t.), and 0.5 ml was administered subscrotally. Acute physiological responses to noxious stimuli at injection and castration were evaluated by measuring blood pressure (BP), heart rate (HR), cortisol, epinephrine, norepinephrine and chromogranin A (CgA); limb movements were quantified. The results confirm that castration without analgesia is highly painful. Surgical castration without pain relief revealed significant changes in mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) and HR. Local anesthetic administration significantly reduced changes in BP and HR associated with castration. Piglets receiving a preoperative local anesthetic exhibited the fewest limb movements during castration, while the NaCl group exhibited the most. Injection itself was not associated with significant changes in MAP or HR. However, many piglets exhibited limb movements during injection, indicating that the injection itself causes nociceptive pain. No significant differences were found between groups regarding parameters of plasma cortisol, catecholamines and CgA. In conclusion, all four local anesthetics administered are highly effective at reducing signs of nociception during castration under light isoflurane anesthesia. However, injection of a local anesthetic seems to be painful.

Comparison of the effectiveness of local anaesthesia (LA) in piglet castration with the combination of scrotal and inguinal application of procaine 2 % and lidocaine 5 % to the intratesticular application of lidocaine 1 % using following parameters: adrenaline (A), noradrenaline (NA), defensive movements and coordinated movement patterns.In 2 substudies 232 male suckling piglets (3-6 days of age) were randomly allocated to study groups. In groups L5 and group P2 lidocaine 5 % and procaine 2 % was applied inguinally and scrotally, respectively, while piglets of groups H (handling) and K (castration without local anaesthesia) were only fixated as for an injection. In group L1 lidocaine 1 % was injected intratesticularly. After 30 min piglets were were castrated, whereas animals of group H were again only fixated. In substudy 1 (n = 112) blood samples were taken to determine the concentration of catecholamines after castration. During injection and castration defensive movements were judged. In substudy 2 (n = 120) piglets completed a chute to document the individual stress level.Groups H and L1 demonstrated significantly less defensive movements during fixation for injection/injection compared to the other study groups (p ≤ 0.05). After the injection piglets of group P2 had significantly more difficulties in the chute and needed50 % more time to complete the course. In all study groups defensive movements during castration were the highest at the moment of severing the spermal cord. Group K obtained the highest possible rating of 8 and differed significantly from the other groups as well as when cutting the skin (p ≤ 0.05). Both the concentration of A and NA significantly rose in all groups. The increase in A and NA was significantly higher in group 2, as well as the increase in NA in group K, both in comparison to the other study groups (p ≤ 0.05).None of the applied techniques for local anaesthesia achieved a complete elimination of pain during castration of suckling piglets. The behaviour analysis indicated an altogether higher distress for P2. After castration, this injection led to a neuroendocrine pain reaction that was comparable to or higher than that of group K. In both lidocaine groups (L1, L5) the pain reaction after castration tended to be lower. These results provide approaches to apply longer acting LA with a higher analgesic potency in an appropriate dosage and with an appropriate method of application.ZIEL: Beurteilung der Wirksamkeit der Lokalanästhesie (LA) durch skrotale kombiniert mit inguinaler Applikation von Procain 2 %, von Lidocain 5 % und durch intratestikuläre Applikation von Lidocain 1 % bei der Saugferkelkastration anhand der Parameter Adrenalin (A), Noradrenalin (NA) sowie Abwehrbewegungen und koordinierter Bewegungsabläufe der Tiere.In 2 Teilversuchen (TV) wurden 232 männliche Saugferkel (3.–6. Lebenstag) in Versuchsgruppen eingeteilt. In Gruppe L5 wurde Lidocain 5 % und in Gruppe P2 Procain 2 % inguinal und skrotal verabreicht. In den Gruppen H (nur Handling) und K (Kastration ohne LA) wurden die Ferkel wie bei diesen Injektionen fixiert. In Gruppe L1 erfolgte eine intratestikuläre Injektion von Lidocain 1 %. 30 Minuten später wurden die Tiere kastriert bzw. wie für die Kastration fixiert (Gruppe H). In TV1 (n = 112) wurde das Abwehrverhalten während Injektion und Kastration mittels Score beurteilt und direkt nach der Kastration Blutproben zur Bestimmung der A- und NA-Konzentration entnommen. In TV2 (n = 120) absolvierten alle Tiere einen Hürdenlauf, um die individuelle Schmerzbelastung zu dokumentieren.Beim Handling bzw. während der Injektion wiesen Ferkel der Gruppen H bzw. L1 geringere Abwehrbewegungen auf als Ferkel der übrigen Gruppen (p ≤ 0,05). In Gruppe P2 traten nach Injektion mehr Laufauffälligkeiten auf (p ≤ 0,05) und in dieser Gruppe verlängerte sich die für den Hürdenlauf benötigte Zeit um50 %. Während der Samenstrangdurchtrennung wurden bei allen Gruppen die Abwehrbewegungen am höchsten bewertet, Gruppe K wies den höchstmöglichen Abwehrscore auf und unterschied sich, ebenso wie während der Hautschnitte, von den übrigen Gruppen (p ≤ 0,05). Sowohl die A- als auch NA-Konzentration stieg in allen Gruppen nach Kastration an (p ≤ 0,05), wobei dieser Anstieg in Gruppe P2 (NA, A) und K (A) höher ausfiel als in den übrigen Gruppen (p ≤ 0,05).Keine der angewendeten Methoden bewirkte eine vollständigen Schmerzausschaltung während der Kastration. Die Injektion von Procain 2 % führte gemessen an Verhaltensbeobachtungen insgesamt zu einer höheren Belastung, in beiden Lidocaingruppen (L1, L5) traten nach Kastration tendenziell geringere Schmerzreaktionen auf. Diese Ergebnisse schaffen eine Grundlage für weitere Untersuchungen und können Ansätze bieten, um Lokalanästhetika mit höherer analgetischer Potenz und längerer Wirksamkeit in entsprechender Dosierung auf geeignete Weise zu applizieren.

Comparison of the effectiveness of local anaesthesia (LA) in piglet castration by procaine 2 % and lidocaine 5 % both through combined inguinal and scrotal application as well as by intratesticular application of lidocaine 1 %. The parameters used were serum cortisol and chromogranin A (CgA) concentrations as well as wound healing, body weight and animal losses.In 2 substudies, a total of 232 male piglets aged 3-6 days were included. Substudy 1 (112 piglets): Group H: fixation of piglets as for an injection; group L5: inguinal and scrotal injection of lidocaine 5 %; group P2: inguinal and scrotal injection of procaine 2 %; group L1: intratesticular injection of lidocaine 1 %. In all the groups, blood samples were taken 45 minutes before and 30 minutes post-injection (p. i.). Substudy 2 (120 piglets): Group H: handling only as for an injection and castration; group K: handling as for an injection and castration without LA after 30 minutes. Groups L5, P2 and L1: management as in substudy 1 and castration after 30 minutes. Blood samples were taken 75 minutes before as well as 30, 60 and 240 minutes post-castration (p. c.). The evaluated parameters were serum cortisol and CgA concentrations, wound healing, body weight and piglet losses.Substudy 1: The elevation of the cortisol and CgA concentrations in group P2 p. i. were significantly higher than in the other groups. The mean total cortisol concentration of group P2 p. i. was significantly higher than those of the other groups. Substudy 2: At 30 minutes p. c., all the groups displayed a significant increase in the cortisol concentration compared to group H. In group P2, the highest total cortisol concentration was measured 60 minutes p. c. and the elevation of the cortisol level was significantly higher than in the other groups. In group L1, a significantly greater increase in the CgA level was observed at 60 minutes p. c. when compared to the other groups. Regarding wound healing, body weight and losses, there were no significant differences between the groups.The combined inguinal and scrotal injection of procaine 2 % induced a greater neuroendocrine stress response than the inguinal and scrotal injection of lidocaine 5 % and the intratesticular injection of lidocaine 1 %. LA using procaine 2 %, lidocaine 5 % or lidocaine 1 % did not completely eliminate pain during castration. Castration under LA with procaine 2 % induced a greater pain reaction than castration without LA. Both groups castrated with LA using lidocaine (L1, L5) tended to display lower pain responses after castration than group K. On the basis of the findings of this study, other local anaesthetics that have a stronger effect could be further investigated according to their pain-killing effects in an appropriate application route.ZIEL: Vergleich der Wirksamkeit der Lokalanästhesie (LA) mit Procain 2 % und Lidocain 5 % bei skrotaler kombiniert mit inguinaler Applikation mit der testikulären Applikation von Lidocain 1 % zur Beurteilung der schmerzbedingten Stressreaktion auf Injektion und Kastration.In 2 Teilversuchen (TV) wurden 232 männliche Saugferkel eingeschlossen und verschiedenen Gruppen zugeordnet. TV1 (n = 112): Gruppe H: Fixation der Ferkel wie bei der Injektion, keine Applikation; Gruppe L5: Applikation von Lidocain 5 % inguinal und skrotal; Gruppe P2: Applikation von Procain 2 % inguinal und skrotal; Gruppe L1: intratestikuläre Injektion von Lidocain 1 %. Eine Blutentnahme erfolgte jeweils 45 Minuten vor sowie 30 Minuten nach der Injektion (p. i.). TV2 (n = 120): Gruppe H: nur Handling wie bei der Injektion und Kastration; Gruppe K: Fixation wie bei der Injektion und betäubungslose Kastration nach 30 Minuten; Gruppen L5, P2 und L1: Verfahren wie in TV1 mit Kastration 30 Minuten nach Injektion. Jedem Ferkel wurde 75 Minuten vor sowie 30, 60 und 240 Minuten nach der Kastration (p. c.) Blut entnommen. Untersuchte Parameter waren Serumkonzentration von Kortisol und Chromogranin A (CgA) sowie Wundheilung, Gewichtsentwicklung und Verluste bis zum Absetzen.TV1: In Gruppe P2 ergab sich p. i. ein signifikant höherer Anstieg der Kortisol- und CgA-Konzentration als in den anderen Gruppen. Die mittlere Kortisolkonzentration der Gruppe P2 war p. i. im Vergleich zu denen der übrigen Gruppen signifikant höher. TV2: Alle Gruppen wiesen im Vergleich zu Gruppe H 30 Minuten p. c. einen signifikanten Anstieg der Kortisolkonzentration auf. In Gruppe P2 wurde die höchste Kortisolkonzentration 60 Minuten p. c. gemessen und der Anstieg der Kortisolkonzentration fiel im Vergleich zu den restlichen Gruppen signifikant höher aus. In Gruppe L1 zeigte sich 60 Minuten p. c. ein signifikant höherer Anstieg der CgA-Konzentration als in den anderen Gruppen. Wundheilung, Körpergewicht und Verluste ließen keine signifikanten Unterschiede zwischen den Gruppen erkennen.Die inguinale und skrotale Injektion von Procain 2 % erzeugte eine höhere neuroendokrine Stressreaktion als die inguinale und skrotale Applikation von Lidocain 5 % sowie die intratestikuläre Injektion von Lidocain 1 %. Die LA mit Procain 2 % sowie Lidocain 1 % und 5 % führte zu keiner vollständigen Schmerzausschaltung. Die Kastration unter LA mit Procain 2 % verursachte eine höhere Schmerzreaktion als die betäubungslose Kastration. In beiden Lidocaingruppen (L1, L5) traten nach Kastration tendenziell geringere Schmerzreaktionen auf als in Gruppe K. Diese Ergebnisse bieten eine Grundlage für weitere Untersuchungen und können Ansätze bieten, um Lokalanästhetika mit höherer analgetischer Potenz längerer Wirksamkeit auf geeignete Weise zu applizieren.

Determination of possible risk factors of adventitious bursae (AB) in finishing pigs depending on different types of flooring and evaluation of their impact on animal welfare.The prevalence of adventitious bursae in 1702 finishing pigs from nine conventional fattening farms with different types of flooring (fully slatted, PigPort = partially slatted floor, slanted floor = solid concrete floor, deep straw-bedded) was investigated at entry into fattening farm and shortly before slaughter. Existing bursae were recorded and graded and the skin of the affected locations was evaluated. Additionally, the weight of each individual pig was recorded on both dates.On fully slatted floors 94.0 % of the pigs showed at least one bursa shortly before slaughter, in PigPort-farms 87.6 %, in slanted floor-farms 82.9 % and on deep straw-bedded floor 50.3 %. When comparing both assessment dates the pigs on fully slatted floors had the highest increase in prevalence of bursae, followed by the pigs in PigPorts, on slanted floors and on straw. Furthermore, the pigs fattened on fully slatted floors showed a significantly (p0.001) higher number of bursae per animal at the end of the fattening period than the pigs fattened on other types of flooring as well as a significantly (p0.001) higher proportion of more severe bursae.The high prevalence of bursae assessed in this study represents, irrespective of the presence of pain, a deficit regarding animal husbandry in terms of technopathy and therefore a serious issue regarding animal welfare. That requires changes in terms of animal welfare standards. By reducing the amount of slots in the pens of fattening farms, as it is the case in PigPort- and even more in slanted floor-farms, the prevalence and number of bursae per pig and the severity of bursae can be reduced. An additional supply of a soft, flexible lying area, e.g. with straw as litter, is another positive measure that should be implemented if possible.ZIEL:: Beurteilung verschiedener Bodentypen als mögliche Ursache für Entstehung und Ausprägung akzessorischer Bursen (AB) bei Mastschweinen und Evaluierung deren Tierschutzrelevanz.In neun konventionellen Mastbetrieben mit verschiedenen Bodensystemen (Vollspalten, PigPort, Schrägboden, Tiefstreu-Stroh) wurden bei Einstallung zur Mast und kurz vor der Schlachtung 1702 Mastschweine auf Vorliegen von AB untersucht und deren Ausprägung sowie die Beschaffenheit der Haut an diesen Stellen dokumentiert. An beiden Beurteilungszeitpunkten wurden zudem Einzeltiergewichte erfasst.Auf Vollspalten hatten kurz vor der Schlachtung 94,0 % der Tiere mindestens eine AB, in PigPort-Betrieben 87,6 %, auf Schrägboden 82,9 % und auf Stroh 50,3 %. Beim Vergleich beider Beurteilungszeitpunkte zeigten die Tiere auf Vollspalten den höchsten Anstieg der AB-Prävalenz, gefolgt von den Tieren im PigPort, auf Schrägboden und Stroh. Am Ende der Mast fanden sich bei Tieren der Vollspalten-Betriebe signifikant (p0,001) mehr AB pro Tier sowie ein signifikant (p0,001) höherer Anteil an AB höheren Schweregrads als bei den Tieren auf anderen Bodensystemen.Die ermittelte hohe AB-Prävalenz stellt, unabhängig vom Vorhandensein von Schmerzen, ein Defizit hinsichtlich des Haltungssystems im Sinne einer Technopathie und damit ein tierschutzrelevantes Problem dar. Dies erfordert ein Handeln im Sinne des Tierwohls. Durch eine Reduzierung des Spaltenanteils in Mastbetrieben, wie es im PigPort und weitergehend beim Schrägboden der Fall ist, kann eine Verringerung des Auftretens und des Schweregrads von AB sowie eine Reduzierung der Bursenanzahl pro Tier erreicht werden. Die zusätz liche Bereitstellung einer weichen Liegefläche (z. B. mittels Stroh) ist eine weitere positive Maßnahme, die, soweit haltungstechnisch möglich, umgesetzt werden sollte.

The aim of the first part of the present study was to specify risk factors for the development of adventitious bursae on the limbs of weaning and finishing pigs.In total, 192 pigs were examined weekly, recording the following parameters: general condition, number, size and localization of adventitious bursae on the limbs and sternum, gait and claws.Adventitious bursae can occur at 13 positions on the limbs or sternum. These adventitious bursae were already evident when pigs were moved to the nursery. The prevalence of adventitious bursae increased constantly from weaning to slaughter. At the age of 24 weeks, 97.8 % of all investigated pigs displayed adventitious bursae (aged 4 weeks: 25.5 %; aged 12 weeks: 67.6 %). Heavier pigs had significantly more and larger adventitious bursae than lighter pigs of the same age. Furthermore, heavier pigs retrieved feed from the automatic feeder less frequently but ate larger amounts each time. In addition, pigs with poorer gait displayed significantly more adventitious bursae. In 95.6 % of all investigated pigs, claw lesions were evident at slaughter. The general condition was unaffected by adventitious bursae.Referring to the results of the present study and the general function of bursae protecting underlying structure against pressure, there is no indication that adventitious bursae affect the animal welfare in terms of the sensation of pain. Influenced by various factors, adventitious bursae develop with high prevalence and number per animal over the course of the life of pigs and can be described as a technopathy. Because of the exposure of adventitious bursae, there is a risk to become an ulcerated bursa of degree three in relation to injuries.

Objective: The worldwide prevalence of obesity has increased to 10% in men and 15% in women and is associated with severe comorbidities such as diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular disease. Animal models of obesity are central to experimental studies of disease mechanisms and therapeutic strategies. Diet-induced obesity (DIO) models in rodents have provided important insights into the pathophysiology of obesity and, in most instances, are the first in line for exploratory pharmacology studies. To deepen the relevance towards translation to human patients, we established a corresponding DIO model in Göttingen minipigs (GM). Methods: Young adult female ovariectomized GM were fed a high-fat/high-energy diet for a period of 70 weeks. The ration was calculated to meet the requirements and maintain body weight (BW) of lean adult minipigs (L-GM group) or increased stepwise to achieve an obese state (DIO-GM group). Body composition, blood parameters and intravenous glucose tolerance were determined at regular intervals. A pilot chronic treatment trial with a GLP1 receptor agonist was conducted in DIO-GM. At the end of the study, the animals were necropsied and a biobank of selected tissues was established. Results: DIO-GM developed severe subcutaneous and visceral adiposity (body fat >50% of body mass vs. 22% in L-GM), increased plasma cholesterol, triglyceride, and free fatty acid levels, insulin resistance (HOMA-IR >5 vs. 2 in L-GM), impaired glucose tolerance and increased heart rate when resting and active. However, fasting glucose concentrations stayed within normal range throughout the study. Treatment with a long-acting GLP1 receptor agonist revealed substantial reduction of food intake and body weight within four weeks, with increased drug sensitivity relative to observations in other DIO animal models. Extensive adipose tissue inflammation and adipocyte necrosis was observed in visceral, but not subcutaneous, adipose tissue of DIO-GM. Conclusions: The Munich DIO-GM model resembles hallmarks of the human metabolic syndrome with extensive adipose tissue inflammation and adipocyte necrosis reported for the first time. DIO-GM may be used for evaluating novel treatments of obesity and associated comorbidities. They may help to identify triggers and mechanisms of fat tissue inflammation and mechanisms preventing complete metabolic decompensation despite morbid obesity. Keywords: Pig, High fat diet, Obesity, Diabetes, Metabolic syndrome, Adipose tissue inflammation

Reports on cases of human diphtheria caused by toxigenic Corynebacterium ulcerans that were linked to occupational swine contact as well as isolation of C ulcerans from wild boars have suggested that pigs might serve as reservoir for human infections. Therefore, a prevalence study on Corynebacterium species nasal carriage in pigs and their farmers was performed between August 1 and December 31, 2009, in 41 swine farms from Bavaria, Germany. All 411 asymptomatic pigs and 29 of 30 healthy farmers were colonised with Corynebacterium strains of up to 11 different species. No potentially toxigenic Corynebacterium strain was isolated either from the pigs or from their farmers, respectively. The patterns of the species composition in the pigs and the farmers were very similar, suggesting a potential transmission of strains between animals and humans.

Mycoplasma suis causes infectious anaemia in pigs (IAP), which can manifest in various degrees of severity depending on the virulence and the host's susceptibility. As M. suis cannot be cultured in vitro experimental infections of splenectomised animals play an essential role for pathogenesis research. The aim of the present study was to characterise the course of experimental infection using the highly virulent and red blood cell (RBC-) invasive M. suis strain KI3806, to compare the experimental course in splenectomised and non-splenectomised pigs and to correlate clinical and haematological parameters with M. suis blood loads. All infected splenectomised pigs (n=7) were PCR-positive 2 days post infection (DPI) with maximum mean bacterial loads of 1.61 × 10(10)M. suis/mL on 8 DPI. They developed severe anaemia and massive hypoglycaemia by 8 DPI and had to be euthanised preterm (until 8 DPI) without seroconversion. The non-splenectomised pigs (n=7) became PCR-positive within 23 DPI and reached a maximum mean M. suis load of 1.64 × 10(5)M. suis/mL on 8 DPI. They developed mild anaemia, massive skin alterations with petechiae and haemorrhagic diathesis and seroconverted within 35 DPI. The study demonstrated that experimental infection of splenectomised pigs with the highly virulent M. suis strain KI3806 induces a fulminant course of infection. In contrast, M. suis strain KI3806 induces a mild course of disease in non-splenectomised pigs, which resembles the situation in naturally infected pigs. Therefore, these infection models are valuable for future pathogenesis studies on acute and chronic M. suis infections.

The objective of this study was to examine the effect of an anaesthesia using 70% carbon dioxide and 30% oxygen on endocrine stress reaction, behaviour and clinical parameters of male suckling piglets during castration. One hundred and seventy one male piglets, three to five days of age, were allocated to two experiments. They were assigned either to the procedures control handling, control castration, handling under anaesthesia or castration under anaesthesia in each experiment. In Experiment 1, adrenaline and noradrenaline plasma concentrations were measured in blood samples taken before (-15 min) and after (immediately, 2 min) handling/castration. In Experiment 2, behavioural observations and clinical parameters such as heart and respiratory rate, oxygen saturation, reflexes and recovery time were assessed at several sampling times. Measurement of adrenaline and noradrenaline concentrations revealed an increase in all groups after handling/castration (p0.0167), but higher concentrations were seen in the anaesthetized groups (25 to 93 times) than in control groups (two to four times). The excessive endocrine reaction suggests that carbon dioxide inhalation causes a more stressful situation in piglets compared to castration without anaesthesia. Behavioural abnormalities, significant decreases in the heart rate, the respiratory rate and the oxygen saturation (por = 0.001) including a cardiac arrhythmia (extrasystoles) underline the impression that CO2 inhalation anaesthesia negatively affects animal welfare. Based on the results of this study, this anaesthetic method is unsuitable to reduce stress induced by castration. Further research on alternatives is necessary to ensure the well-being of the piglets during castration.

Since April 2006 piglets in Germany can only be castrated without anesthesia in the first 7 days of life. However, a castration is a painful experience even for an animal of this young age. Whether the castration under isoflurane-anesthesia is a reasonable alternative to castration without anesthesia was tested in the following investigation at 206 4 to 6 day old piglets. The serum-cortisol-concentration was chosen as the parameter for the pain caused by castration. A part of the animals was castrated without anesthesia (group II, n = 42) or with anesthesia (group IV, n = 41). Additionally Meloxicam, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, was applicated to piglets castrated with anesthesia (group V, n = 41). For control another part of the animals were only handled without (group I, n = 41) or with anesthesia (group III, n = 41), but they were not castrated. Cortisol-concentration prior to castration was compared to the concentration 0.5, 1,4 and 24 hours after castration. In addition cortisol was compared between groups at all points of time. Cortisol did rise significantly in castrated animals with animals with or without anesthesia than in animals of the non-castrated control groups. Cortisol after castration was significantly lower in piglets with an application of Meloxicam prior to castration. The pain caused by castration is an explanation for the differences in cortisol-concentration between castrated and not-castrated animals. Regarding those results, we assume that castration with isoflurane-anesthesia does not fulfil the demand for reducing pain after castration compared to castrating piglets without anesthesia.

According to the current German animal welfare law, male piglets may be surgical castrated without anaesthesia up to four weeks of life. This surgical procedure is painful during and also after the operation, for newborn animals as well as for adults. This study was aimed to investigate the impact of preoperative application of analgesics (Meloxicam) on the postoperative castration - pain of four to six days old male piglets. In this investigation all animals were randomly distributed in three groups:the first one was only immobilized but had no surgery, the second one was castrated without analgesics, and the third group was castrated after application of Meloxicam. Blood samples were taken immediately before immobilization, castration or application of the analgesic as well as one, four and 28 hours afterwards to determine Cortisol-concentration in the blood serum and, via this stress-marker, to indirectly evaluate the postoperative und possible intraoperative castration-pain. As a result all piglets castrated without preoperative application of Meloxicam showed significantly increased Cortisol-concentration one and four hours after castration. In contrast, piglets castrated with analgesics resulted in no significant increase during the entire experiment.