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Equations of Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) are utilized to characterize the model’s scalar temporal behavior of dark energy. A table relating cosmic age, cosmological redshift, and the temporal FSC Hubble parameter value is created. The resulting graph of the log of the Hubble parameter as a function of cosmological (or galactic) redshift has a particularly interesting sinuous shape. This graph greatly resembles what ΛCDM proponents have been expecting for a scalar temporal behavior of dark energy. And yet, the FSC Rh = ct model expansion, by definition, neither decelerates nor accelerates. It may well be that apparent early cosmic deceleration and late cosmic acceleration both ultimately prove to be illusions produced by a constant-velocity, linearly-expanding, FSC universe. Furthermore, as discussed herein, the FSC model would appear to strongly support Freedman et al. in the current Hubble tension debate, if approximately 14 Gyrs can be assumed to be the current cosmic age.

The Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) model is utilized to show how this model predicts the value of the Hubble parameter at each epoch of cosmic expansion. Specific attention in this paper is given to correlating the observable galactic redshifts since the beginning of the “cosmic dawn” reionization epoch. A graph of the log of the Hubble parameter as a function of redshift z is presented as the FSC prediction of the pending Dark Energy Survey results. In the process, it is discovered that the obvious tension between the SHOES local Hubble constant value and the 2018 Planck Survey and the 2018 Dark Energy Survey global Hubble constant values may be explained by a time-variable, scalar, Hubble parameter acting in accordance with the FSC model.

With reference to Mach’s relation, an attempt has been made to develop a practical model of cosmology. Main features of this integrated model are: eternal role of Planck scale and Mach’s relation, light speed expansion and rotation, slow thermal cooling, internal acceleration and anisotropy. At any stage of cosmic expansion, there exists a tight correlation between gravitational self energy density, thermal energy density, cosmic angular velocity and Hubble parameter. In this model, total cosmic matter is dark matter only. During cosmic evolution, part of galactic dark matter is slowly transforming to visual mass. Magnitude of galactic dark mass is proportional to . Considering the current cosmic maximum angular acceleration, MOND’s approach implicitly seems to support the cosmological estimation of 95% invisible matter and 5% visible matter. Estimated flat rotation speeds of DD168, Milky Way and UGC12591 are 49.96 km/sec, 199.66 km/sec and 521.75 km/sec respectively. As per the reference data, their corresponding flat rotation speeds are 52 km/sec, 202.6 km/sec and 500 km/sec respectively. Within a range of (50 to 500) km/sec, these striking coincidences are strongly supporting our proposed concepts. We are working on collecting data for most of the galaxies and updating this draft with detailed tables and figures in our next revision. Proceeding further, applying our idea to Sun and Proton, their current dark masses are and respectively. Current cosmic graviton wave length seems to be around 3.6 mm. Even though, this model is free from ‘big bang’, ‘inflation’, ‘dark energy’, ‘flatness’ and ‘red shift’ issues, at estimated present Hubble parameter is cosmic radius is 146.3 times higher than the Hubble radius, angular velocity is 146.3 times smaller than the Hubble parameter and cosmic age is 146.3 times the Hubble age. With future observations and advanced telescopes, it may be possible to see far distance galaxies and very old stars far beyond our Milk Way.

Cosmologists have long ignored a stipulation by quantum field theorists that the vacuum pressure p corresponding to the zero-state vacuum energy must always be equal in magnitude to the vacuum energy density ρ (i.e., p=ρ). Although general relativity stipulates the additional condition of proportionality between the vacuum gravitational field and (ρ+3p), the equation of state for the cosmic vacuum must fulfill both relativistic and quantum stipulations. This paper fully integrates Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) into the Friedmann equations containing a cosmological term, with interesting implications for the nature of dark energy, cosmic entropy and the entropic arrow of time. The FSC vacuum energy density is shown to be equal to the cosmic fluid bulk modulus at all times, thus meeting the quantum theory stipulation of (p=ρ). To date, FSC is the only viable dark energy cosmological model which has fully-integrated general relativity and quantum features.

This paper integrates the Flat Space Cosmology (FSC) model into the Friedmann equations containing a cosmological term. The Lambda term within this model scales according to 3H2t/c2 and 3/R2t. Use of the Bekenstein-Hawking definition of closed gravitational system total entropy provides for FSC cosmic parameter definitions in terms of . Cosmic time, radius, total matter mass-energy and vacuum energy in this model scale in exactly the same way as . This analysis opens the way for understanding gravity, dark energy and dark matter as being deeply connected with cosmic entropy. The recent theoretical work of Roger Penrose and Erik Verlinde is discussed in this context. The results of this FSC model analysis dovetail nicely with Verlinde’s work suggesting gravity as being fundamentally an emergent property of cosmic entropy. This emergent-property-of-entropy definition of gravity, if true, would also indicate that gravitational inertia, dark matter and dark energy are simply manifestations of cosmic entropy. Thus, they would likely have no identifiable connection to quantum physics, including the standard particle model.

To understand the mystery of final unification, in our earlier publications, we proposed that there exist three atomic gravitational constants associated with electroweak, strong and electromagnetic interactions. During cosmic evolution, if one is willing to give equal importance to Higgs boson and Planck mass in understanding the massive origin of elementary particles, then it seems quite logical to expect a common relation in between Planck scale and Electroweak scale. Based on these two points, we noticed that, electroweak field seems to be operated by a primordial massive fermion of rest energy 585 GeV. It can be considered as the zygote of all elementary particles and galactic dark matter. H-bar seems to be a characteristic outcome of unified electroweak gravity. Electron rest mass seems to be a characteristic outcome of electroweak and strong gravity. Proton rest mass seems to be a characteristic outcome of electroweak, strong and electromagnetic gravity. Recently observed 3.5 keV photon seems to be an outcome of annihilation of charged baby lepton of rest energy 1.75 keV. Interesting point to be noted is that, Schwarzschild radius of electron is 0.48 nanometer and it needs further investigation with respect to emerging nano-science and technology. Proceeding further, by considering electromagnetic and weak gravitational constants, neutron life time can be understood.

We show that, Schwarzschild radius of Planck mass plays a vital role in electroweak and strong interactions. With reference to the observed large proportionality ratio, , it seems appropriate to consider a large nuclear gravitational constant, . Qualitatively this idea is in agreement with 'Strong gravity' concept proposed by Abdus Salam and C.Sivaram [Mod. Phys. Lett., A8(4), 321- 326. (1993)]. We would like to suggest that, by replacing the Newtonian gravitational constant with the proposed nuclear gravitational constant, predicted high energy levels of String theory can be brought down to the current hadronic scale. Based on this idea, we defined the nuclear Planck mass, and proposed a quantized model mechanism for understanding the hadronic mass spectrum.

With reference to the earlier proposed black hole model of cosmology, the authors proposed a unified model mechanism for understanding the light emission mechanism in cosmologically ‘strengthening hydrogen atom’. In this proposed model, characteristic cosmic mass, characteristic nuclear charge radius, Avogadro number and possible quantum states of electron seem to play a major role. Throughout the cosmic evolution, Planck’s constant seems to be a constant whereas the currently believed ‘reduced Planck’s constant’ seems to be a cosmological decreasing variable.With this new proposal - Hubble’s redshift interpretation, Super novae dimming and currently believed cosmic acceleration can be reviewed at fundamental level and a correct model of cosmology can be confirmed.

We present a new model of cosmology which appears to show great promise. Our flat space cosmology model, using only four basic and reasonable assumptions, derives highly accurate Hubble parameter H0, Hubble radius R0 and total mass M0 values for our observable universe. Our model derives a current Hubble parameter of , in excellent agreement with the newly reported (lower limit) results of the 2015 Planck Survey. Remarkably, all of these derivations can be made with only these basic assumptions and the current CMB radiation temperature . The thermodynamic equations we have generated follow Hawking’s black hole temperature formula. We have also derived a variety of other useful cosmological formulae. These include angular velocity and other rotational formulae. A particularly useful hyperbolic equation, , has been derived, which appears to be an excellent fit for the Planck scale as well as the current observable universe scale. Using the flat space Minkowski relativistic formula for Doppler effect, and a formula for staging our cosmological model according to its average mass-energy density at every Hubble time (universal age) in its expansion, a persuasive argument can be made that the observable phenomena attributed to dark energy are actually manifestations of Doppler and gravitational redshift. Finally, a theory of cosmic inflation becomes completely unnecessary because our flat space cosmology model is always at critical density.

By implementing the unified mass unit Mc≅√e2/4πeoG the authors made an attempt to fit and understand the key ‘quantum’ and ‘nuclear’ physical parameters. With MC and by considering the electromagnetic and gravitational force ratio of proton and electron - the nuclear charge radius, the Planck’s constant and the strong coupling constant can be fitted in a unified approach. Finally by considering the proton rest energy and the nuclear charge radius the authors made an attempt to fit the semi empirical mass formula energy coefficients and stable heavy elements in a very simple way.

Considering 'black hole geometry' as the 'eternal cosmic geometry' and by assuming 'constant light speed rotation' throughout the cosmic evolution, at any time the currently believed cosmic 'critical density' can be shown to be the cosmic black hole's eternal 'volume density'. Thinking in this way and based on the Mach's principle, 'distance cosmic back ground' can be quantified in terms of 'Hubble volume' and 'Hubble mass'. To proceed further the observed cosmic redshift can be reinterpreted as an index of 'cosmological' light emission mechanism. By considering the characteristic mass unit

Physicists have long suggested that the four observed fundamental forces of nature are separate manifestations of what was once a single force at times close to the Big Bang. If so, magnitude of the unified force can be assumed to be equal to.Strength of a...

Within the expanding cosmic Hubble volu me, Hubble length can be considered as the gravitational or electro magnetic interaction range. Product of 'Hubble volu me' and 'cosmic crit ical density' can be called as the "Hubble mass". The three key assumptions are: 1) within the Hubble volu me, each and every point in free space is influenced by the Hubble mass, 2) 'mo lar electron mass' can be considered as the rest mass of a new heavy charged elementary particle and 3) atomic grav itational constant seems to be Avogadro number times the classical gravitational constant. This is a new approach and may be given a chance in understanding the four fundamental cosmo logical interactions.

In modern cosmology, the shape of the universe is flat. In between the closed space and flat space, there is one compro mise. That is 'Hubble volu me'. Even though Hubble volume is virtual in the flat universe, by considering the product of critical mass density and the Hubble volume, one can estimate the Hubble mass. By coupling the Hubble mass with the Mach's principle, one can understand the origin o f cos mic, ato mic and nuclear physical parameters. Thus the four fundamental interactions can be studied in a unified manner.

Basic idea is - current cosmological changes may be reflected in any atom. At any given cosmic time, ‘Hubble length’ can be considered as the gravitational or electromagnetic interaction range. Some cosmologists use the term ‘Hubble volume’ to refer to the volume of the observable universe. With reference to the Mach’s principle and Hubble volume, at any cosmic time, if ‘Hubble mass’ is the product of cosmic ‘critical density’ and the ‘Hubble volume’, then it can be suggested that, each and every point in the free space is influenced by the Hubble mass. Clearly speaking, with Hubble volume and Hubble mass: quantum physics, nuclear physics and cosmic physics can be studied in a unified manner. In this new direction authors noticed some interesting coincidences. With reference to the present atomic and nuclear physical constants, present value of Hubble’s constant is close to (69.5 to 71) km/sec/Mpc. With reference to the microscopic coincidences it is possible to suggest that, current cosmic expansion is saturated and is being stopped by the microscopic physical constants.