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This report presents one new hybrid orchid of Taiwan, i.e., Gastrochilus × hsuehshanensis which resulted from hybridization between G. formosanus and G. rantabunensis. Also, the existence of both Cyrtosia javanica and Cypripedium macranthos in Taiwan is questionable, and these were excluded from the Taiwanese orchid flora.

This report presents two new orchids of Taiwan, i.e., Cheirostylis octodactyla f. cymbiformes and Gastrodia rubinea. Lecanorchis bihuensis is revised and emended with new information.

This report presents two new mycoheterotrophic orchids of Taiwan, i.e., Cyrtosia septentrionalis (Rchb.f.) Garay and Gastrodia kaohsiungensis T.P. Lin. The genus Cyrtosia in Taiwan is also reviewed. The pollinia of Galeola lindleyia and G. falconeri share the same morphology as two species of Cyrtosia found in Taiwan. The pollinia may provide new evidence to merge Galeola with Cyrtosia.

This report presents three new orchids of Taiwan, i.e., Epipogium meridianus T.P. Lin, Liparis monoceros T.P. Lin, and Nervilia septemtrionarius T.P. Lin. Epipogium meridianus could be a hybrid between E. roseum and E. kentingensis.

This report presents three new orchids of Taiwan, i.e., Habenaria alishanensis T.P. Lin & D.M. Huang, Neottia cinsbuensis T.P. Lin & D.M. Huang, and Nephelaphyllum tenuiflorum Blume.

This report presents three new orchids of Taiwan, i.e., Aphyllorchis montana Reichb. f. forma pingtungensis T.P. Lin, Cheirostylis pusilla Lindl. var. simplex T.P. Lin, and Cheirostylis nantouensis T.P. Lin.

This report presents three new orchids in Taiwan, i.e., Epipactis fascicularis T.P. Lin, Neottia piluchiensis T.P. Lin, and Platanthera nantousylvatica T.P. Lin.

In this report three new orchids to Taiwan, i.e., Cephalantheropsis longipes, Habenaria tsaiana and Nervilia linearilabia are presented. Cephalantheropsis dolichopoda (Fukuy.) Lin is a new combination from Calanthe dolichopoda Fukuy. Liparis sp. is an unknown species also included for reference.

In this report six new orchids to Taiwan, i.e., Bulbophyllum confragosum, Bulbophyllum hirundinis var. puniceum, Bulbophyllum albociliatum var. shanlinshiense, Nervilia ratis, Oberonia linguae and Goodyera velutina var. albo-nervosa are presented.

In this report, three new native orchids (Bulbophyllum tenuislinguae, Epipogum kentingensis, and Neottia hohuanshanensis) are reported. Another species previously reported under the name Lecanorchis nigricans was renamed Lecanorchis bihuensis. Bulbophyllum hymenanthum indeed occurs in Taiwan, but a detailed description requires further research.

In this report, 10 new native orchids (Brachycorythis peitawuensis, Bulbophyllum electrinum var. calvum, Bulbophyllum kuanwuensis var. luchuensis, Bulbophyllum kuanwuensis var. rutilum, Cheirostylis rubrifolius, Corybas puniceus, Erythrodes blumei var. aggregatus, Nervilia tahanshanensis, Oberonia pumilum var. rotundum, and Tainia caterva), two newly recorded species (Vexillabium nakaianum and Chiloschista parishii) and three new names (Bulbophyllum electrnum var. sui, Corybas taliensis and Flickingeria parietiformis) are presented. Description and figures are also provided.

Background and Aims The genetic variation and divergence estimated by allozyme analysis were used to reveal the evolutionary history of Castanopsis carlesii in Taiwan. Two major questions were discussed concerning evolutionary issues: where are the diversity centres, and where are the most genetically divergent sites in Taiwan? Methods Twenty-two populations of C. carlesii were sampled throughout Taiwan. Starch gel electrophoresis was used to assay allozyme variation. Genetic parameters and mean FST values of each population were analysed using the BIOSYS-2 program. Mean FST values of each population against the remaining populations, considered as genetic divergence, were estimated using the FSTAT program. Key Results Average values of genetic parameters describing the within-population variation, the average number of alleles per locus (A = 25), the effective number of alleles per locus (Ae = 138), the allelic richness (Ar = 238), the percentage of polymorphic loci (P = 69%), and the expected heterozygosity (He = 0270) were estimated. High levels of genetic diversity were found for C. carlesii compared with other local plant species. Genetic differentiation between populations was generally low. Conclusions From the data of expected heterozygosity, one major diversity centre was situated in central Taiwan corroborating previous reports for other plant species. According to the mean FST value of each population, the most divergent populations were situated in two places. One includes populations located in north central Taiwan between 2480N and 2420N. The other is located in south-eastern Taiwan between 2240N and 2310N. These two regions are approximately convergent with the most divergent locations determined for several other plant species using chloroplast DNA markers published previously. An important finding obtained from this study is that unordered markers like allozymes can be used to infer past population histories as well as chloroplast DNA markers do.

Nested clade phylogeographical analysis (NCPA), developed by A. R. Templeton and his colleague, was used to infer the evolutionary events that shaped the spatial genetic structure of Trochodendron aralioides in Taiwan. Genetic variation of two intergenic spacers of chloroplast DNA (petG-trnP and trnA-psbJ) among 24 populations, in which two from Japan, two from the Ryukyus and 20 from Taiwan, was examined. The NCPA suggests that the populations in Taiwan were first isolated from those of Japan proper. Since then, the spatial genetic structure in Taiwan was attributable to restricted gene flow.

In this report, two newly discovered native orchids, Bulbophyllum albociliatum (Liu & Su) Nakejima var. weiminianum and Flickingeria shihfuana, are presented.

Background Species in the varied geographic topology of Taiwan underwent obvious demographic changes during glacial periods. Cinnamomum kanehirae has been exploited for timber and to obtain medicinal fungi for the past 100 years. Understanding anthropogenic factors influencing the demography of this species after the last glacial maximum (LGM) is critically important for the conservation of this species. Results Populations of C. kanehirae were classified into four geographic regions: northwestern (NW), west-central (WC), southwestern (SW), and southeastern (SE). In total, 113 individuals from 19 localities were sampled, and variations in the chalcone synthase gene (Chs) intron and leafy (Lfy) intron-2 sequences of nuclear DNA were examined in order to assess phylogeographic patterns, the timescales of demographic and evolutionary events, and recent anthropogenic effects. In total, 210 Chs and 170 Lfy sequences, which respectively constituted 36 and 35 haplotypes, were used for the analyses. Estimates of the migration rate (M) through time revealed a pattern of frequent gene flow during previous and the present interglacials. The isolation-by-distance test showed that there generally was no significant correlation between genetic and geographic distances. The level of among-region genetic differentiation was significant when comparing eastern to western populations. However, no significant among-region genetic differentiation was found in comparisons among the four geographic regions. Moreover, essentially no genetic structuring was found for the three regions west of the CMR. A fit of spatial range expansion was found for pooled and regional samples according to the non-significant values of the sum of squared deviations. Using the Bayesian skyline plot (BSP) method, a recent bottleneck after the LGM expansion was detected in both regional and pooled samples. Conclusions Common haplotype distributions among geographic regions and the relatively shallow genetic structuring displayed are the result of historical gene flows. Southward dispersals in an earlier time frame from the NW region and in a later time frame from the SE region were inferred. The BSP analysis suggested a postglacial expansion event. Recent trends, however, refer to a bottleneck due to human interventions observed for both pooled and regional C. kanehirae samples.

In this work, we attempted to study genetic differentiation between populations of Quercus glauca in Taiwan using nuclear microsatellite markers to infer the potential refugium in the last glaciation stage. Four microsatellite loci for 20 individuals each in 10 populations of Taiwan were analyzed. We found that Q. glauca has relatively high within-population diversity (H(E) = 0.741) and low population differentiation (F(ST) = 0.042) but shows isolation by distance. The most divergent populations, according to the average F(ST) for individual populations in comparison with every other population, were found in populations Cy, Sa, and Hy in southern Taiwan and Pa in north-central Taiwan. Moreover, populations Cy, Sa, and Pa were recognized as being the source populations for gene recolonization after the last glaciation stage. In addition, the three sites of Wu, Ym, and Cy exhibited the highest gene diversities that coincided with populations with the highest chloroplast DNA variations. This may have resulted from an admixture of colonization routes. In conclusion, observations of the most divergent populations and source populations suggest that southern and probably north-central Taiwan may have potentially been refugia for Q. glauca in the last glaciation. This agrees with the possible refugium in southern Taiwan revealed by a previous study using chloroplast DNA markers.

This study infers a single origin and a once-widespread distribution of the Rhododendron pseudochrysanthum species complex in Taiwan based on chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) variation. In total, 124 individuals from five endemic Rhododendron species were used for amplifications of two chloroplast intergenic spacers: trnL-trnF and atpB-rbcL. The haplotype and nucleotide diversities were much lower for the R. pseudochrysanthum complex, comprised of the species R. pseudochrysanthum, R. morii, Rhododendron rubropunctatum, and Rhododendron hyperythrum, than for Rhododendron formosanum. Two measures of pairwise population differentiation, N(ST) and F(ST), consistently revealed mostly non-significant levels of genetic divergence between populations of the R. pseudochrysanthum complex. No genetic difference was found among the four species of the R. pseudochrysanthum complex by analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA), which is concordant with the parsimonious topology of cpDNA haplotypes for the complex. Nested clade analysis (NCA) of the cpDNA haplotypes indicated that restricted gene flow with isolation-by-distance characterized the recolonization pattern of the R. pseudochrysanthum complex. In contrast, the NCA analysis indicated a contiguous range expansion for cpDNA haplotypes of R. formosanum. This research suggests a once-widespread distribution of the R. pseudochrysanthum complex probably via north-to-south colonization of mid-elevations during low-temperature periods of the Pleistocene. Population fragmentation followed the warmer climate which began in the Holocene and resulted in the present-day range contraction into high elevations.

In this study, we examined spatial patterns of chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) variation in a total of 30 populations of Castanopsis carlesii Hayata (Fagaceae), a subtropical and temperate tree species, including 201 individuals sampled throughout Taiwan. By sequencing two cpDNA fragments using universal primers (the trnL intron and the trnV-trnM intergenic spacer), we found a total of 1663 bp and 21 polymorphic sites. These gave rise to a total of 28 cpDNA haplotypes. The level of differentiation among the populations studied was relatively high (GST = 0.723). Two ancestral haplotypes are widely distributed. The Central Mountain Ridge (CMR) of Taiwan represents an insurmountable barrier to the east-west gene flow of C. carlesii. Among the populations studied, three separated populations, at Lienhuachih, Fushan and Lichia, have high nucleotide diversity. Estimates of NST-GST for populations on both sides of the CMR indicate that no phylogeographical structure exists. According to the genealogical tree, number of rare haplotype and population genetic divergence, this study suggests that two potential refugia existed during the last glaciation: the first refugium was located in a region to the north of Hsuehshan Range (HR) and west of the CMR; the second refugium was located in south, especially southeastern Taiwan. In fact, the second refugium happens to be the same as that reported for Quercus glauca. A 'star-like' genealogy is characteristic when all haplotypes rapidly coalesce and is a general outcome of population expansion. The neutrality test and mismatch distribution also suggest demographic expansion recovering from a bottleneck.

Phylogeographical and mismatch analysis of chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) variation were used to infer the temporal dynamics of distributional and demographic history of Taiwan fir (Cunninghamia konishii). We examined 64 and 52 trees from 17 populations of C. konishii and 14 provenances of C. lanceolata, respectively, by sequencing three intergenic spacers and one intron using cpDNA universal primers. Of the aligned 1888 base pairs (bp) sequence, 30 varied among 28 haplotypes, which consisted of three transitions, 14 transversions and 13 indels. One ancestral haplotype was found in 86 individuals across the surveyed range of both species, C. konishii and C. lanceolata, which was distributed in all populations and provenances. The 28 haplotypes also included 15 C. konishii specific and 12 C. lanceolata-specific haplotypes. Ancestral haplotype was found fixed in five populations of C. konishii and five provenances of C. lanceolata. Other haplotypes occurred mainly as singletons. The levels of population differentiation studied are relatively low in both Cunninghamia species. The nucleotide diversity (theta) of chloroplast DNA sequences within C. konishii was slightly higher than that of C. lanceolata. Excess in singletons as well as star-like phylogeny of haplotypes suggested no clearcut migration patterns of C. konishii after glacial maximum. One probable demographic history of C. konishii is the postglacial population growth of C. konishii after a glacial bottleneck event. This inference is supported by the combined results of fossil pollen record, low nucleotide diversity, significant Tajima's d-value, phylogeographical analysis and unimodal mismatch distribution. Similarities and discrepancies between our results and those of Lu et al. (2001) are discussed.

Variations in mitochondrial DNA in Cyclobalanopsis glauca (Thunb. ex Murray) Oerst. were studied in 140 trees from 32 populations collected from within the tree's natural range. By sequencing two mitochondrial DNA intron fragments (nad4/3-nad4/4r and nad7/2-nad7/3r), we revealed a total of 1788 bp and five polymorphic sites which allowed us to distinguish six mitotypes. The mitochondrial DNA markers provided replicated data to support population phylogeographical scenarios suggested previously using chloroplastic DNA markers. The gene genealogical tree of mitochondrial DNA was partially congruent with the chloroplastic DNA tree owing to the slower mutation rate and different mutational direction. Significant linkage disequilibrium existed between the two organellar genomes. Further paring analyses between fragments synthesized using different primers, accompanied by exclusion of polymorphic sites, showed that the random association could be attributed specifically to one of the polymorphic sites of the petG-trnP fragment of the chloroplastic genome, and the three polymorphic sites of the nad4/3-nad4/4r fragment of the mitochondrial genome. The former was inferred to derive from paternal leakage, and the latter from recurrent mutation. These polymorphic sites were also responsible for uncoupling of the combined gene tree of mitotype and chlorotype. In conclusion, specific fragments found in this study contribute to the incomplete congruence of the two organellar lineages that otherwise associate well phylogeographically.

This study examined the spatial pattern of chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) variation in Cyclobalanopsis glauca (Thunb. ex Murray) Oerst. (Fagaceae) in 140 trees from Taiwan (25 populations), Japan (three), Ryukyus (two), Hong Kong (one) and Mainland China (one). By sequencing three cpDNA intergenic spacer fragments using universal primers (trnT-trnL, trnV-trnM, including the trnV intron, and petG-trnP), we found a total of 1,980 bp and 15 polymorphic sites. Among them, 12 sites were caused by point mutation, and three resulted from insertion. This gives rise to a total of 13 cpDNA haplotypes. The level of differentiation among the populations studied is relatively high (GST = 0.612). Two ancestral haplotypes (A and B) are distributed widely in East Asia. Interestingly, all the derived cpDNA variations are found only in Taiwan but not in other areas. The Central Mountain Ridge (CMR) of Taiwan creates an unsurpassed barrier to the east-west gene flow of C. glauca. Among the populations on the west of CMR, only three separated populations, Yangmingshan, Wushe and Chinshuiying, have high haplotype diversity, each consisting of sister haplotypes all mutated from the same ancestral haplotype. Thus, they have probably originated from de novo mutation after the last glaciation. This inference agrees with the observation that no spatial autocorrelation existed on the west side. Two unrelated dominant lineages on the east of the CMR (haplotypes D and F) showed significant spatial genetic structure. Estimate of NST - GST was -0.090 and differed significantly from zero. Thus at the local scale, the phylogeographical component of the genetic structure is significant on the east of the CMR. Accompanied by published palynological records of the last glaciation, this study suggests the possibility that these two types were colonized northward from the southeastern part of Taiwan. 'Star-like' genealogy is characterized, with all the haplotypes coalescing rapidly and as a general outcome of population expansion (PageHolmes 1998). A neutrality test also suggested a demographic expansion recovered from a bottleneck. We therefore inferred that the southeastern part of Taiwan might be a potential refugium for C. glauca.

Allozyme genetic variability in five natural populations of Cyclobalanopsis championii (Fagaceae) in Taiwan was investigated using 12 loci from 9 enzyme systems. The average values of parameters describing within-population variation, expected heterozygosity (He = 0.151), the percentage of polymorphic loci per individual (P = 50%), the average number of alleles per locus (A = 1.7), effective number of alleles per locus (Ae = 1.25), and the average number of alleles per polymorphic loci (AP = 2.2) are comparable to those of other long-lived woody plants. The overall fixation index (Fis = 0.208) indicates a significant deficiency of heterozygotes at the population level. Allelic frequency deviation from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium was found for different loci in different populations. An exact test for population differentiation using the Tools for Population Genetic Analyses program also indicates that allelic frequencies among populations are significantly different (P < .001). Among-population variation, Gst, accounted for 9.2% of the total heterozygosity. The population at Shouchia and the southernmost population Nanjenshan had higher inbreeding coefficients (0.177 and 0.153, respectively) than did the northern populations. Genetic drift is supported by the observations of the variance components of linkage disequilibrium and a large proportion of loci in Nanjenshan and Shouchia that show pairwise locus disequilibrium. We believe continuous genetic drift in the southern populations will increase genetic divergence among populations of C. championii in Taiwan. Significant correlation was found between elevation and expected heterozygosity. We therefore inferred that temperature is the most important ecological factor to influence the genetic diversity of C. championii.