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Changes in module drawer temperature and relative humidity were monitored for 24 commercial loads of hens. Mathematical models revealed significant differences in predicted drawer temperature depending on their location and the outside environmental temperature. Higher predicted temperatures were found in uppermost drawers of the top modules at the front of the lorry, and lower temperatures in drawers on the outer sides of modules and in those drawers in modules next to the back of the lorry in both the upper and lower modules during transport. In the lairage, drawer temperature generally decreased, except in drawers at the top of modules where temperatures increased. Temperature increases were most often recorded in modules which had been located at the rear of the lorry, which were generally cooler during transport. End-of-lay hens would appear to be exposed to a greater risk of cold stress rather than heat stress in the UK. Inspection of birds during transport, or upon arrival, should be directed to the bottom and side drawers of a load when looking for cold stress, and the top row of drawers (centre) of the top modules when looking for heat stress. The frequency of inspections should increase at times of high ambient temperature while the birds are being held in lairages. Adjusting the numbers of birds loaded per drawer according to bird condition and weather appears to be an effective mitigation strategy which is already in use commercially.

Factors affecting the number of weaned piglets found dead after commercial transport between farms were studied by means of multilevel Poisson regression. Information relating to 58,682 piglets during 109 journeys in different EU countries was collected at the end of each journey by means of questionnaires. Overall, 0.07 per cent of all the transported piglets were found dead on arrival, and deaths of piglets were recorded in 13.8 per cent of journeys. The final regression model, which was calculated using the complete records from 105 journeys, included the total duration of the journey, the mean outside temperature during the journey, whether the piglets were fasted before transport, whether drinking water was provided, the type of ventilation in the vehicle and the interaction between journey duration and the mean outside temperature. The duration of the journey and the mean outside temperature showed a significant interaction effect, with a gradual increase in the predicted number of dead piglets with increasing journey duration as the outside temperature increased. Providing the piglets with drinking water and having mechanically assisted ventilation (fans) in the vehicle during the journey significantly reduced the number of deaths, as did fasting the piglets before transport.

Two systems for transporting live salmon (Salmo salar) were compared in terms of their effects on blood variables, muscle pH and rigor index: an 'open system' well-boat with recirculated sea water at 13.5 degrees C and a stocking density of 107 kg/m3 during an eight-hour journey, and a 'closed system' well-boat with water chilled from 16.7 to 2.1 degrees C and a stocking density of 243.7 kg/m3 during a seven-hour journey. Groups of 10 fish were sampled at each of four stages: in cages at the farm, in the well-boat after loading, in the well-boat after the journey and before unloading, and in the processing plant after they were pumped from the resting cages. At each sampling, the fish were stunned and bled by gill cutting. Blood samples were taken to measure lactate, osmolality, chloride, sodium, cortisol and glucose, and their muscle pH and rigor index were measured at death and three hours later. In the open system well-boat, the initial muscle pH of the fish decreased at each successive stage, and at the final stage they had a significantly lower initial muscle pH and more rapid onset of rigor than the fish transported on the closed system well-boat. At the final stage all the blood variables except glucose were significantly affected in the fish transported on both types of well-boat.

A multilevel logistic regression model was used to identify and quantify the effects of factors affecting the mortality of pigs being transported to slaughter under commercial conditions. A survey of 739 journeys to 37 slaughterhouses in five eu countries was carried out, and information potentially related to the welfare and mortality of the pigs and the number of injuries were recorded. The average temperature during the journey, its duration, the average loading time per pig, the recorded injuries, fasting before transport, and the interaction between fasting and journey duration were used in the final model. The average mortality was 0.11 per cent and the average proportion of injured pigs was 0.36 per cent, and these figures were significantly correlated (P<0.001). In 29 per cent of the journeys the pigs were not fasted before being loaded, which doubled the risk of mortality irrespective of whether the pigs were injured or not. The risk of mortality increased with average temperature. In journeys with fasted pigs that did not have any recorded injury, average temperature was more important than the duration of the journey. The risk of mortality increased as the average time taken to load them decreased, and the risk was highest when the pigs were not fasted and when injuries were recorded. Other factors such as the country, loading density, availability of drinking water and type of ventilation did not affect the risk of mortality.

During the transport of salmon (Salmo salar), in a well-boat, 10 fish were sampled at each of six stages: in cages after crowding at the farm (stage 1), in the well-boat after loading (stage 2), in the well-boat after eight hours transport and before unloading (stage 3), in the resting cages immediately after finishing unloading (stage 4), after 24 hours resting in cages, (stage 5) and in the processing plant after pumping from the resting cages (stage 6). The water in the well-boat was at ambient temperature with recirculation to the sea. At each stage the fish were stunned percussively and bled by gill cutting. Immediately after death, and then every three hours for 18 hours, the muscle pH and rigor index of the fish were measured. At successive stages the initial muscle pH of the fish decreased, except for a slight gain in stage 5, after they had been rested for 24 hours. The lowest initial muscle pH was observed at stage 6. The fishes' rigor index showed that rigor developed more quickly at each successive stage, except for a slight decrease in rate at stage 5, attributable to the recovery of muscle reserves.

A total of 417 pigs with an estimated average liveweight of 91 kg were transported to slaughter in three journeys, carried out in late June, each consisting of a three-hour drive followed by a one-hour holding period at the slaughter plant before they were unloaded. The pigs were accommodated on the lower two decks of a three-deck articulated lorry, each deck having five equal-sized pens; half were kept in naturally ventilated pens and half in pens with fan-assisted ventilation. The pigs' body temperature was recorded as the temperature of the blood lost at exsanguination, and as the temperature of the inner surface of the ear measured by thermal imaging. The pigs carried on the upper deck were hotter than those carried on the lower deck, and the pigs carried at the front of the vehicle were hotter than those at the back. There were small differences between the temperatures of the pigs in the different pens, but overall the temperatures of the pigs kept in pens with fan-assisted ventilation were no lower than those of the pigs kept in pens with natural ventilation. The higher temperature of the pigs transported in the front of the vehicle was associated with significantly higher serum concentrations of cortisol and activities of creatine kinase, and a tendency to higher albumin concentrations and osmolality, suggesting that they may have been exposed to more physical and psychological stress, and were possibly slightly more dehydrated, than the pigs in the rearmost pens. The type of ventilation had no effect on the blood composition of the pigs.

Groups of pigs were subjected to three different systems of loading and unloading to and from commercial animal transporters. The systems under trial were: the use of a hydraulic tail-lift, a tail board ramp at an angle of 18 degrees and a modular system. The module was a container 2 m x 2.4 m x 1 m high into which the pigs were loaded. The module could then be lifted on and off the lorry with a fork lift truck. Non-invasive monitoring techniques were used to study the responses of the pigs. A subjective handling score, time taken to load and unload, skin temperature, heart rate and salivary cortisol were recorded. Loading and unloading were subjectively assessed as being easiest and quickest using the modular system, which also appeared to be less physically demanding for the animals, as evidenced by lower heart rate and a reduced maximum heart rate. However, with the modular system, elevated cortisol was found during the loading, unloading and resting periods. This could be interpreted as indicating that the pigs were unable to settle in the module and suffered some small degree of stress, which might become more of a problem during prolonged transport. Of the other two systems, there appeared to be little difference between the hydraulic tail-lift and the ramp.

Five methods for estimating the stocking density of sheep confined in a pen were assessed. The pen (2.35 m x 3.01 m) simulated the pens on a normal road transporter. The trial used 50 lambs (average weight 34 kg) of mixed sex and breed, held at five stocking densities--0.466 to 0.824 m2/100 kg or 214 to 121 kg/m2--covering the range used in commercial practice, and 14 assessors, all experienced in handling animals. The best method was that based on the girth measurement of a sample of animals to estimate liveweight and a count of the animals in the pen. The methods based on using a moveable gate to take up free floor space, assessing the difficulty of moving through the pen of animals, using photographic scales, and counting the numbers of sheep across transects were generally less successful.

Steers representative of the most common type, weight and conformation slaughtered in Chile were transported for either three or 16 hours and held in lairage for three, six, 12 or 24 hours. Measurements of liveweight, carcase weight, and the postmortem pH and colour of muscle were made to assess the economic and welfare effects of the different transport and lairage times. Compared with the short journey, the longer journey was associated with a mean (se) reduction in liveweight of 8.5 (2.8) kg, and there was a further decrease of 0.42 (0.18) kg for every hour that the animals were kept in lairage after 16 hours of transport, an increase in final muscle pH, a decrease in muscle luminosity and an increase in the proportion of carcases downgraded because they were classified as 'dark cutting The carcase weights also tended to be lower after the longer journey and after longer periods in lairage.

A total of 6578 sheep carried in 74 vehicles to one slaughter plant were monitored, and stocking densities, in terms of m2 floor area available per 100 kg liveweight, were estimated from the dimensions of the vehicle pens and estimates of liveweight based on chest girth measurements. The observed stocking densities ranged from 0.29 to 2.00 m2/100 kg liveweight, and the average density was 0.65 m2/100 kg. One per cent of the sheep were carried at estimated stocking densities of less than 0.3 m2/100 kg, 37 per cent at densities between 0.3 and 0.6 m2/100 kg and 57 per cent at densities between 0.6 and 0.9 m2/100 kg. Over 30 per cent of the animals in the survey were transported at densities higher than the working recommendations made by the Farm Animal Welfare Council.

Pigs from three farms were deprived of food for up to one hour, 12 hours or 18 hours before being sent for slaughter. In lairage, the animals' behaviour was monitored, and at slaughter a blood sample was collected and analysed for cortisol, lactate and creatine phosphokinase, potential indicators of stress and physical activity. The carcases were assessed for skin damage as an index of fighting, and rigor in the hind leg as an indicator of stress and/or fatigue. Measurements were also made of cold carcase weight, backfat thickness and liver glycogen concentration. General activity was very high on entry to the lairage pen. Drinking and mounting occurred almost immediately. Fighting developed after an exploratory period, and could last up to 60 minutes. There were large differences in the behaviour of pigs from the three farms. Pigs from farm A fought frequently but showed little mounting activity, whereas pigs from farm C were involved in mounting but little fighting. The period of food deprivation had no effect on average skin damage or rigor score, but the frequency of carcases with the highest scores was different The pigs deprived of food for up to an hour had the lowest incidence of severe skin damage and high rigor scores. Boars had a higher incidence of severe skin damage but a lower incidence of carcases with a high rigor score than gilts. Liver glycogen was almost completely depleted in the pigs deprived of food for 12 and 18 hours and was lower in the pigs deprived for up to an hour than in animals fed immediately before slaughter. The period of food deprivation had no effect on the levels of cortisol, creatine phosphokinase or lactate in the blood.

Ninety-six pure-bred Large White pigs weighing 80 to 100 kg were either not transported or transported for eight, 16 or 24 hours, and then either slaughtered immediately on arrival at the abattoir or kept in lairage for six hours before being slaughtered. The pigs travelling for eight, 16 or 24 hours lost 2.2, 2.0 and 4.3 per cent of liveweight, respectively, and the pigs travelling for 24 hours lost 2.6 per cent of hot carcase weight Both liveweight and hot carcase weight recovered during the lairage period although there was a net liveweight loss in comparison with the control animals. Only transport for 24 hours led to losses in carcase weight The concentration of non-esterified fatty acids increased with the time spent travelling. The concentrations of cortisol, creatine phosphokinase and lactate were all low in comparison with the levels found in commercially slaughtered animals. Plasma albumin and protein concentrations indicated that the animals were becoming dehydrated during the longer journeys. The animals lay down for most of the journey and appeared to be asleep. During the period in lairage, the animals transported for eight hours had two distinct periods of feeding and drinking but spent most of the time lying down, but those transported for 16 and 24 hours showed far more eating and drinking activity. All the groups appeared tired, but the urge to eat of the groups transported for 16 hours, and especially 24 hours appeared to be more important. There were behavioural and the physiological differences between the transported groups and the controls. Six hours in lairage with access to food and water allowed most of the physiological parameters to return to pretransport levels.

Commercial broiler chickens killed in two processing plants, one in the south of England, the other in Scotland, in two seasons (winter and summer) and on two occasions in each season, were used to investigate the effects of killing the birds immediately on arrival or holding them in lairage for one, two, three or four hours. The two most important consequences of holding the birds in lairage were that their body temperature increased and their liver glycogen was depleted. The body temperature increased with the time they were held in lairage, although most of the increase occurred in the first hour and the increase was greater in summer when ambient temperatures were higher. Liver glycogen depletion became apparent after about one to two hours in lairage. No evidence was obtained that the birds were significantly dehydrated or physically stressed by being kept longer in lairage.

This study examined the effects of transporting calves less than four weeks of age on a journey at the limit of the maximum time laid down by recent EU legislation. In both summer and winter, 45 calves were transported by road for 19 hours. The journey included a one-hour break on the lorry in which the calves were given either a glucose/electrolyte solution, water, or nothing at all. Control groups of 15 calves remained on farm and were fed normally. The effects of the journey were greater during winter when liveweight loss was greater and more prolonged, and the calves suffered a depression in body temperature. Mid-journey feeding was of minimal benefit. Feeding electrolytes reduced the extent of dehydration as measured by changes in plasma total protein and albumin concentrations, but there was some indication that giving water alone was detrimental. Most of the variables which changed during the journey had recovered in line with the values in the control animals within 24 hours of the end of the journey, but the calves' liveweight and plasma creatine kinase activity took up to seven days to stabilise. The study highlighted the problem that young calves have in maintaining body temperature during transport, especially during colder weather.

The transport of farm animals has been the subject of much research in recent years. This paper reviews the recent scientific literature pertinent to the road transport of cattle. The state of knowledge is summarised and recommendations for best practice based upon this are given. Areas which require further work are also identified.

The transport of farm animals has been the subject of much research in recent years. This paper reviews the past and recent scientific literature pertinent to the road transport of slaughter sheep. The state of knowledge is summarised and recommendations for best practice based upon this are given. Areas which require further work are also identified.

Lambs were transported for 24 hours during summer and winter at a range of stocking densities. Shorn lambs of mean liveweight 39.5 kg were transported at densities of 0.448, 0.513, 0.602 and 0.769 m2/100 kg in July and fully-fleeced lambs of 37.3 kg mean liveweight were transported at densities of 0.613, 0.680, 0.775 and 0.909 m2/100 kg in February. Fewer lambs lay down and rested at high stocking densities and there was a marked increase in the plasma levels of creatine kinase at the highest stocking density in winter. All other measured effects of stocking density were small when compared with the overall effects of transport. There was a decrease in body temperature during transport, especially in the lambs that were recently shorn, even though they were transported during warm summer conditions. At the highest stocking density there was a smaller decrease in body temperature.

Subjection of broiler chickens to random, narrow band vibration (2, 5, 10 Hz) for 1 h, simulating that experienced during normal road transport, did not significantly influence liver or muscle glycogen concentrations or muscle ultimate pH (pHu). Vibration for 3 h increased body temperature (P<0.05) and decreased (P<0.01) pHu in both 'white' pectoralis superficalis (PS) and 'red' biceps femoris (BF) muscles overall, but did not affect liver or muscle glycogen concentrations. However, higher vibration frequencies resulted in reduced (P<0.05) glycogen concentrations in liver and BF muscle. The conclusion was that vibration was unlikely to be the major cause of muscle glycogen depletion seen in transported broilers, but the reduction in pHu in the PS muscle after vibration may have been related to the similar effect seen in previous studies after normal transport.

Two trials, each involving 56 calves less than one month old, demonstrated that the responses of calves to food and water deprivation during 24 hours of transport were similar to those observed in older cattle and lambs. There was increasing utilisation of body reserves and a measurable increase in dehydration, coupled with an increased loss of liveweight. Feeding 1 litre of glucose/electrolyte solution at eight-hour intervals did reduce the effects of food and water deprivation, but it is suggested that the minor benefits of mid-transport feeding during a 24-hour journey would not justify the disruption that would be caused by unloading and feeding. It would be better to complete the journey in as short a time as possible, providing the calves were carried under suitable conditions. Liveweight and the levels of plasma beta-hydroxybutyrate, non-esterified fatty acids, total protein and albumin had all returned to approximately pre-transport values after 24 hours of recovery. However, the calves had not started to gain in liveweight until some time after 24 but before 72 hours of recovery. The calves did not show the same marked responses in heart rate, plasma cortisol and plasma glucose that are observed in older cattle and in other species. They also appeared to be unable to regulate their body temperature closely, when they were transported during the winter. It is suggested that their lack of response to transport was not because they were unaffected but because they were physiologically unadapted to coping with transport.

Three lorry loads, each of approximately 530 lambs, were monitored during August 1994 while they were transported from the Midlands to France. Each lorry underwent a similar journey, designed to study the effects of a) 22 hours on a lorry broken by two hours of feed, water and rest after 15 hours, b) 34 hours on a lorry broken by eight hours of feed, water and rest after 24 hours and c) 24 hours on a lorry and lairage for the following 48 hours. Measurements were made on 180 lambs in each load, of liveweight, plasma betahydroxybutyrate (BHB), non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), urea, total protein, albumin, osmolality, creatine kinase (CK), cortisol and glucose, before, during and after transport. Twenty-four hours of transport resulted in changes in some of the variables measured that were little different from those observed after 24 hours of feed and water deprivation; however, the high ambient temperatures during the transport resulted in a greater degree of dehydration. For journeys longer than 15 hours a two-hour rest in lairage with access to water and a palatable food source was beneficial in allowing some slight recovery. Although all the differences were in the direction that would be expected with recovery, they were often small and, within the sensitivity of the study, were only significant for NEFA and C.K. For journeys longer than 24 hours, an eight-hour rest in lairage with access to water and a palatable food source was beneficial and allowed material realimentation and rehydration before further transport for up to 10 hours. After 24 hours of transport, however, liveweight, plasma urea, total protein and albumin had only returned to basal levels after 24 hours in lairage and plasma BHB, CK and osmolality after 48 hours of lairage.

A survey of 800 broilers arriving at two commercial slaughterhouses with a combined annual throughput of 40 million birds was carried out. Each plant was visited on four occasions throughout summer and winter and blood samples were collected from 100 broilers at exsanguination throughout the day of each visit. In all, the survey covered 16 lorry loads of broilers delivered to one plant and 20 loads delivered to the other. The blood collected was analysed for packed cell volume (PCV), plasma creatine kinase, total protein, sodium, glucose, osmolality and corticosterone. Based on the measures of PCV, plasma total protein, sodium and osmolality there was no evidence of dehydration amongst the lorry loads of birds delivered to the plants. There were differences between the two plants in the levels of all of the blood variables that were measured, except for those of plasma corticosterone.

Five groups of 20 slaughter sheep of approximately 37.9 kg liveweight were transported by road for either three, nine, 15, 18 or 24 hours and three groups were not transported, one of them being deprived of food and water for 24 hours. Before and after transport the liveweight and various blood variables were measured and heart rate and behavioural observations were recorded from subsets of the animals. With increased journey time there was a decrease in liveweight and an increase in the plasma levels of free fatty acids, beta-hydroxybutyrate and urea; however, the changes over 24 hours were similar to those in the group deprived of food and water. In the transported sheep, the heart rate and levels of plasma cortisol and glucose were increased by the stresses of loading and the initial stages of the journey, but after nine hours the sheep appeared, to some extent, to have adapted. They were able to lie down and did not appear to be physically stressed. Measurements of plasma osmolality, total plasma protein and albumin did not indicate that the sheep had become severely dehydrated after 24 hours of transport but upon their return, feeding and drinking activity was greater than that observed before the journey.

Twenty-four castrated male cattle aged between 12 and 18 months were transported by road for five, 10 or 15 hours, over distances of 286, 536 and 738 km. Half the animals were of Hereford x Friesian breeding and half of 'continental' type. The animals transported for five hours lost 4.6 per cent of their bodyweight, those transported for 10 hours lost 6.5 per cent and those transported for 15 hours lost 7.0 per cent; recovery to pre-transport values took five days. There was little evidence from changes in blood composition that a 15-hour journey was more stressful than a 10-hour journey. The cortisol concentrations were increased by the stresses of loading and the first part of the journey but then recovered as the journey continued. Creatine phosphokinase (CPK) activities increased progressively with the longer journeys and CPK, urea, albumin and osmolality levels recovered more slowly after the longer journeys. Increases in free fatty acids, beta-hydroxybutyrate and urea concentrations and the continued increase in urea levels after the end of the journeys suggested that the animals' normal pattern of feeding was disrupted. Increases in albumin, total plasma protein and osmolality indicated slight dehydration during transit which was quickly rectified by access to water. The two breed types responded similarly to transport, except that the increases in CPK were greater in the continental breeds, possibly as a result of their greater muscularity or greater sensitivity to stress. Based on the physiological measurements made and the subjective observations of behaviour a 15-hour transport period under good conditions is not unacceptable from the viewpoint of animal welfare.

The computerised records of all the lambs slaughtered at one plant from August 1991 to July 1992 were used to determine the mortality rate throughout the year and to examine the variables that could have been associated with changes in the mortality rate. The plant processed 3.3 per cent of all the lambs that were slaughtered in the United Kingdom during the period. Lambs arriving for slaughter from a livestock auction were over four times more likely to die in lairage, or to have died during transport, than lambs which were sent directly from the farm. However, the overall mortality rate was only 0.0182 per cent and lower than that for other species for which figures were available. Changes in the mortality rate of the lambs from livestock auctions appeared to be associated with the price of slaughter lambs, and periods of increased mortality coincided with increased rates of carcase condemnations due to 'arthritis', 'abscess' and 'pleurisy'.

Two commercial lorry consignments of 500 sheep were followed from the United Kingdom to their destinations in southern France, one journey of 800 miles taking 18 hours and the other of 950 miles taking 24 hours. Measurements were made of liveweight and skinfold thickness, and blood samples were taken from 100 sheep in each consignment, two days before departure and again immediately after the journeys. The results from each consignment were similar. High levels of plasma beta-hydroxybutyrate, free fatty acids and urea, both before and after the journeys, indicated that the animals were in a catabolic state. Before the journey this was probably as a result of their marketing through livestock auctions. After the journey the animals showed evidence of dehydration, indicated by increased levels of plasma total protein and albumin, and increases in plasma osmolality and skinfold thickness. The behaviour of the sheep after the journeys indicated that they were all alert and physically fit; they showed great interest in any food that was available and were only secondarily interested in drinking, and then resting.

Several behavioural measures were used to determine fearfulness and fatigue in broiler chickens subjected to fasting and/or transportation. There was considerable variability between four replicates, although measures within replicates were acceptably consistent. There was no uniform effect of fasting or transport on behaviour. The most cogent results were obtained by monitoring post-journey behaviour. In the few hours after transport, fasted and transported birds stood more than control birds which could be explained by increased food-searching behaviour and/or arousal. It is argued that the high variability between replicates indicates that considerable efforts must be made to control environmental variables in studies of behaviour after transporting chickens.

The effects of nine and 14 hours of road transport and the subsequent recovery in lairage of 392 hill lambs were studied in August and November. The gathering and the handling of the lambs were stressful, both physically and psychologically, and the journey imposed further psychological and metabolic stress. The levels of noise in the trailer were high (90db[A]). There were no measurable differences between the responses of the lambs transported for nine or 14 hours and there appeared to be three stages in their recovery after transport. After the first 24 hours of lairage changes in the blood components usually associated with short term stress and dehydration had recovered; after 96 hours there had been a well defined recovery of liveweight and the levels of most of the metabolites measured appeared to have stabilised and after 144 hours the lambs had recovered almost completely, most of the creatine phosphokinase had been cleared from the plasma and their plasma protein levels had stabilised.

Broilers were either not transported or were transported for 2, 4 or 6 hours after having been subjected to food withdrawal times of less than one hour or of ten hours. The birds were then slaughtered using normal commercial practices. The longer period of food deprivation reduced liver weight and glycogen content, and circulating glucose concentrations. It also elevated the ultimate pH value (pHu) in the biceps muscle and by implication, therefore, reduced its glycogen content. With longer journey times, liver weight and glycogen content decreased. Transport had an inconsistent effect on glycogen concentration in the pectoral muscle but progressively reduced its pHu. In contrast, pHu in the biceps progressively increased, by implication because transport depleted muscle glycogen levels. Birds transported further had higher concentrations of total protein in their plasma which, though this was not significant, also had a higher osmolality. This suggests that transported birds became dehydrated. Additionally, the depletion of body glycogen stores might be associated with the perception of fatigue.