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Background: Trauma is a major global health problem and majority of the deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), at even higher rates in the rural areas. The three-delay model assesses three different delays in accessing healthcare and can be applied to improve surgical and trauma healthcare delivery. Prior to implementing change, the capacities of the rural India healthcare system need to be identified., Objective: The object of this study was to estimate surgical and trauma care capacities of government health facilities in rural Nanakpur, Haryana, India using the Personnel, Infrastructure, Procedures, Equipment and Supplies (PIPES) and International Assessment of Capacity for Trauma (INTACT) tools., Methods: The PIPES and INTACT tools were administered at eight government health facilities serving the population of Nanakpur in June 2015. Data analysis was performed per tool subsection, and an overall score was calculated. Higher PIPES or INTACT indices correspond to greater surgical or trauma care capacity, respectively., Findings: Surgical and trauma care capacities increased with higher levels of care. The median PIPES score was significantly higher for tertiary facilities than primary and secondary facilities [13.8 (IQR 9.5, 18.2) vs. 4.7 (IQR 3.9, 6.2), p = 0.03]. The lower-level facilities were mainly lacking in personnel and procedures., Conclusions: Surgical and trauma care capacities at healthcare facilities in Haryana, India demonstrate a shortage of surgical resources at lower-level centers. Specifically, the Primary Health Centers were not operating at full capacity. These results can inform resource allocation, including increasing education, across different facility levels in rural India., Competing Interests: The authors have no competing interests to declare., (Copyright: © 2021 The Author(s).)

Background: Trauma systems in resource-rich countries have decreased mortality for trauma patients through centralizing resources and standardizing treatment. Rapid industrialization and urbanization have increased the demand for formalized emergency medical services and trauma services (EMS and TS) in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). This systematic review examines initiatives to develop EMS and TS systems in LMICs to inform the development of comprehensive prehospital care systems in resource-poor settings., Materials and Methods: EMS and TS system development publications were identified using MEDLINE, PubMed, and Scopus databases. Articles addressing subspecialty skill sets, public policy, or physicians were excluded. Two independent reviewers assessed titles, abstracts, and full texts in a hierarchical manner., Results: A total of 12 publications met inclusion criteria, and 10 unique LMIC EMS and TS programs were identified. Common initiatives included the integration of existing EMS and TS services and provision of standardized training and formalized certification processes for prehospital care providers, as well as the construction of a conceptual framework for system development through the public health model., Conclusions: There is no single model of EMS and TS systems, and successful programs are heterogeneous across regions. Successful EMS and TS systems share common characteristics. A predevelopment needs assessment is critical in identifying existing EMS and TS resources as a foundation for further development. Implementation requires coordination of preexisting resources with cost-effective initiatives that involve local stakeholders. High-impact priority areas are identified to focus improvements. Financial stresses and mismatching of resources in LMICs are common and are more commonly encountered when implementing a high-income model EMS and TS in an LMIC. Preimplementation and postimplementation evaluations can determine the efficacy of initiatives to strengthen EMS and TS systems., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Addressing the burden of injury in low-resource settings requires development of trauma systems. This study aimed to describe perceptions of trauma in Santa Cruz, Bolivia to better inform strategies for trauma system development. In 2015–2016, we conducted 16 individual and 11 group interviews with key stakeholders involved with or exposed to trauma. A pile sorting activity showed participants pictures of injury mechanisms to explore perceptions of trauma. Responses were analysed for themes using content and discourse analysis. Among 27 interviews, six were with physicians, seven with first responders, three with community members, and 11 with trauma patients. Pictures commonly categorised as trauma depicted a road traffic incident (92.6%), fall (88.9%), gunshot wound (88.9%), and burn (85.2%). Fewer respondents stated intoxication (51.9%) or drowning (40.7%) were trauma. Coding of responses revealed five themes: trauma definition, mechanism, physical injury, management, and psychological trauma. Medical personnel focused more on trauma as mechanism, physical injury, and management, whereas laypersons commonly described trauma as psychological. Varied understanding of what represents trauma could influence trauma registry data collection. Laypersons' focus on psychological trauma may affect use of designated trauma care hospitals. These viewpoints must be considered when designing policies and interventions for trauma system strengthening. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Achieving definitive care within the "Golden Hour" by minimizing response times is a consistent goal of regional trauma systems. This study hypothesizes that in urban Level I Trauma Centers, shorter pre-hospital times would predict outcomes in penetrating thoracic injuries. Materials and Methods: A retrospective cohort study was performed using a statewide trauma registry for the years 1999-2003. Total pre-hospital times were measured for urban victims of penetrating thoracic trauma. Crude and adjusted mortality rates were compared by pre-hospital time using STATA statistical software. Results: During the study period, 908 patients presented to the hospital after penetrating thoracic trauma, with 79% surviving. Patients with higher injury severity scores (ISS) were transported more quickly. Injury severity scores (ISS) ≥16 and emergency department (ED) hypotension (systolic blood pressure, SBP <90) strongly predicted mortality (P < 0.05 for each). In a logistic regression model including age, race, and ISS, longer transport times for hypotensive patients were associated with higher mortality rates (all P values <0.05). This was seen most significantly when comparing patient transport times 0-15 min and 46-60 min (P < 0.001). Conclusion: In victims of penetrating thoracic trauma, more severely injured patients arrive at urban trauma centers sooner. Mortality is strongly predicted by injury severity, although shorter pre-hospital times are associated with improved survival. These results suggest that careful planning to optimize transport time-encompassing hospital capacity and existing resources, traffic patterns, and trauma incident densities may be beneficial in areas with a high burden of penetrating trauma. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Ninety percent of nearly five million annual global injury deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), where prehospital care systems are frequently rudimentary or nonexistent. The World Health Organization considers layperson first-responders as essential for emergency medical services in low-resource settings lacking more formalized systems. This study sought to develop and implement a layperson trauma first responder course (TFRC) in Bolivia.Materials and Methods: In March and April 2013 nine sessions of the eight-hour TFRC were held in La Paz, Bolivia. The course charged a nominal fee, and was led by an American surgeon and medical student. The TFRC built upon existing models with local stakeholder input, and included both didactic and practical components. Participants completed a baseline survey, and pre and posttests. The primary outcome was test performance, with secondary outcomes including demographic sub-group test score analyses and exam question validation. Data were assessed using nonparametric and psychometric methods RESULTS: One hundred fifty-nine individuals met study inclusion criteria. Participant median age was 28 (IQR 24, 36), 49.1% were male, 59.1% worked in a medical field, most had secondary (35.2%) or university (56.0%) level educations, and 67.3% had prior first aid training. Median test scores improved after course completion (48% vs. 76%, p <0.001), along with skill confidence (4 vs. 4.5, p <0.001). Most questions had appropriate item difficulty indices, point bi-serial correlation coefficients, and positive Pretest Posttest Difference Indices. Cronbach alpha coefficients for pre and posttest scores were 0.72 and 0.78, respectively.Conclusions: This study presents data from the first offering of an original TFRC for laypeople in Bolivia. Increased participant knowledge and skill confidence after course completion, and acceptable overall psychometric test properties, indicate this model is valid and effective. Future aims include TFRC revision, and enrollment of more layperson first responders to increase population-level impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Surgical and trauma capacity assessments help guide resource allocation and plan interventions to improve care for the injured in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). To forge expert consensus on conducting these assessments, we undertook a systematic review of studies using five tools: (1) World Health Organization's (WHO) Guidelines for Essential Trauma Care, (2) WHO's Tool for Situational Analysis to Assess Emergency and Essential Surgical Care, (3) Personnel, Infrastructure, Procedures, Equipment, and Supplies tool, (4) Harvard Humanitarian Initiative tool, and (5) Emergency and Critical Care tool. Materials and methods Publications describing utilization of survey instruments to assess surgical or trauma capacity in LMICs were reviewed. Included articles underwent thematic analysis to develop recommendations. A modified Delphi method was used to establish expert consensus. Experts rated recommendations on a Likert-type scale via online survey. Consensus was defined by Cronbach's α ≥ 0.80. Recommendations achieving agreement by ≥80% of experts were included. Results Two hundred and ninety-eight publications were identified and 41 included, describing evaluation of 1170 facilities across 36 LMICs. Nine recommendations were agreed upon by expert consensus: (1) inclusion of district hospitals, (2) inclusion of highest level public hospital, (3) inclusion of private facilities, (4) facility visits for on-site completion, (5) direct inspections, (6) checking surgical logs, (7) adaptation of survey instrument, (8) repeat assessments, and (9) need for increased collaboration. Conclusions Expert recommendations developed in this review describe methodology to be employed when conducting assessments of surgical and trauma capacity in LMICs. Consensus has yet to be achieved for tool selection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]