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Background: Computed tomography (CT) is the gold standard for diagnosing canine nasal diseases. However, it cannot easily detect minor abnormalities in inflammatory diseases because they are not accompanied by obvious morphological changes., Aim: The present study aimed to compare the differences in normal CT findings of turbinate structure and mucosa between breeds to establish criteria for CT diagnosis of inflammatory diseases of the nasal cavity., Methods: CT data from 77 dogs of 5 breeds without nasal diseases were retrospectively studied. The nasal air percentage, which reflects the volume of the nasal turbinate structure and mucosa, was measured. The nasal turbinate mucosa was measured for contrast enhancement reflecting blood flow. Measurements were performed in the ventral and ethmoid turbinate (ET) regions. Comparisons were made between breeds and sections., Results: The air percentage in the ventral and ET regions was significantly different between breeds. Contrast enhancement was significantly different between breeds only in the ET. Moreover, different breeds had different correlations between body weight, age, nose length, and air percentage., Conclusion: In this study, reference values for normal CT findings of the nasal structure and mucosa were obtained, taking into account the breed, measurement section, and patient factors. The results showed that the volume of the turbinate structure and contrast enhancement of nasal mucosa differed depending on the breed. The measured values also differed depending on the cross-sections and patient factors., Competing Interests: The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

In this three-center, prospective, non-randomized, controlled trial, we performed a qualitative and quantitative histological and morphometric assessment of the normal uncinate process (UP). The soft tissue and bony elements of the normal UP of 16 adults were investigated and compared with 28 age- and gender-matched archival reference-group samples of neighboring structures of the inferior and middle turbinates. A series of measurements were taken and included the thickness of the mucosal layers and bone, epithelial height, basement membrane thickness, number of lamina propria inflammatory cells, and the area fraction (AF) of the epithelium, connective tissue, glands, veins and arteries. The data showed that the medial and lateral mucosal layers are built of loose connective tissue and harbor various inflammatory cell population, abundant glands, and thin-walled small-caliber venules. In-between, there is a thin lamellar compact bone (≤ 80 μm) or a significantly thicker cancellous bone (110-400 μm; P < 0.001). Both mucosal layers are similar in thickness, epithelial height, basement membrane thickness, and AF of soft-tissue constituents. A comparison with the lateral aspect of the inferior and middle turbinates showed that the AF of the connective tissue, total submucosal glands, submucosal serous and mucous glands, and veins of the lateral mucosa are significantly different (all P < 0.001). This diversity may point to different physiological roles for the UP and the inferior and middle turbinates. The UP rich glandular network, which is probably responsible for drainage and ventilation of the maxillary sinus into the ethmoid infundibulum laterally and the frontal sinus into the middle meatus medially, supports the argument that it is preferable, particularly for the less complicated cases, to keep the normal physiology of the ethmoid infundibulum and use bone- and mucosa-sparing techniques for the management of refractory chronic sinus disease.

Background: Since the last 120 years there were only few descriptions of the anatomical sizes of the inferior turbinate in the literature. On this background the current study should evaluate the radiological dimensions of the inferior turbinate and the septum using DVT., Methods: The latest generation of the Accu-I-tomo was used. The data of 100 adult patients have been evaluated., Results: The bony length was found to be 38.9 mm, the mucosal length 51.0 mm. The findings of the total mucosal thickness at different measuring points were between 8.1 mm and 10.9 mm, those of the bony thickness were between 0.9 mm and 2.3 mm and those of the bony height were between 3.9 mm and 20.8 mm., Conclusion: The results of this radiological study are able to point out the importance of preoperative anatomical evaluation of radiological images. The preoperative focus on the individual anatomy is very important because of the choice of an adequate surgical treatment. Today new radiological techniques can help to find out whether the reason for hypertrophied turbinates is caused by bone, mucosa or both. This knowledge enables a concerted treatment concept.

Objectives: The uncinate process (UP) and the agger nasi (AN) cell are both important anatomical landmarks in endoscopic sinus surgery. The superior attachment of the UP and the prevalence of the AN cell show great anatomical variability and affect the anatomy of the frontal recess. The aim of this study was to investigate the superior attachment types of the UP, the presence of the AN cell, and the relationship between the two., Method: Two hundred sixty-four sides of 132 patients with identifiable superior attachments of the UP were selected from our 2007-08 computed tomography (CT) scan records. Exclusion criteria were previous nasal or paranasal sinus surgery, neoplastic disease, and a history of nasal trauma. The superior attachment type of the UP and the prevalence of the AN cell were evaluated. Three case series from the English-language literature were selected for racial comparison., Results: Single insertion of the UP into the lamina papyracea was the most common type (70.4%). The other types of UP superior attachment were found to have the following distribution: 10.2% into the middle turbinate; 7.6% into the lamina papyracea and the skull base; 6.1% into the skull base, 4.9% into the lamina papyracea and the middle turbinate; and 0.8% into the middle turbinate and the skull base. The distribution of the UP insertion types with respect to ethnicity was statistically significant (P < 0.01). The AN cell was found in 216 (81.8%) of 264 sides. The AN cell was present bilaterally in 95.3% of the cases (206 sides, 103 patients) and unilaterally in 4.7% (10 sides). The prevalence of the AN cell according to superior attachment of the UP types was not statistically significant (chi(2) = 8.6, p = 0.126)., Conclusions: The nasofrontal anatomy did show some variations among different races. The single superior attachment of the UP into the lamina papyracea had the highest prevalence. The AN cell was found to be present in 81.8% of cases. The relationship between the presence of the AN cell and the superior attachment types of the UP was not statistically significant.

Unlabelled: Nasal turbinates play an important role in nasal physiology. These functions include the important function of particle filtration by the mucocilliary system. Many nasal mucosal diseases, such as rhinitis and rhinosinusitis, are directly related with structural alterations of the mucosal lining of the turbinates., Aim: To study the distribution pattern of the glandular epithelium of the lamina propria in the normal lower nasal turbinate mucosa of the anterior, medium and posterior portions., Material and Method: A prospective study in which small linear fragment of the lower nasal turbinate was removed from ten patients undergoing aesthetic nose surgery. The slides were hematoxilin-eosin stained, examined histologically and photographed. Glandular epithelium was delimited individually, the total area of the lamina propria on the anterior, medium and posterior portions of nasal turbinates was calculated (microm2)., Results: There was no statistically significant difference in the distribution pattern of the glandular epithelium of the lamina propria., Conclusion: This study showed no predominance of glandular epithelium distribution in anterior and posterior portions of lower nasal turbinates in normal subjects.

Objective: The uncinate process (UP) is an important anatomic landmark in frontal recess surgery. Its superior attachment shows great anatomic variability. The agger nasi (AN) cell is another important structure that affects frontal recess anatomy and there is a close neighborhood between them. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between superior attachment type of UP and the presence of AN cell., Study Design: A retrospective anatomical study., Method: Computed tomography scans were evaluated of 486 sides of 243 patients who had had paranasal sinus. In 125 (26%) sides, the superior attachment of the UP could not be identified. In the remaining 361 (74%) sides, the prevalence of superior attachment of UP types and the presence of AN cell in each side were recorded. The results were evaluated with chi2 test., Results: The AN cell was found in 290 (80.3%) of 361 sides. The prevalence of AN cell according to superior attachment of UP types were 79.6% for type 1/2, 90.1% for type 3, 71.4% for type 4, 86.5% for type 5, and 83.3% for type 6. The presence of AN cell according to superior attachment types of UP was not statistically significant (chi2= 3.54, P = 0.315)., Conclusions: The AN cell was found to be present in 80.3% of the cases. However, the relationship between the presence of the AN cell and the superior attachment types of UP was not statistically significant.

Background: This study was performed to determine the location of the natural ostium of the sphenoid sinus relative to the intact superior turbinate., Methods: Forty-seven cadaveric specimens were examined. Mucosa over the sphenoethmoidal recess, superior turbinate, and posterior ethmoid was left intact. The position of the sphenoid sinus natural ostium relative to the superior turbinate was identified., Results: The sphenoid ostium was identified in all specimens. In all specimens, the sphenoid ostium was found to be medial to the intact superior turbinate, notwithstanding lateral deflection of the posterior few millimeters of the superior turbinate in some cases., Conclusion: The superior turbinate is an excellent landmark for the sphenoid sinus natural ostium. Previous observations of the ostium positioned lateral to the superior turbinate may have been caused by stripping of the superior turbinate mucosa before measurements were taken. In the intact specimen, the sphenoid ostium is reliably found medial to the superior turbinate.

Objective: To study the histological and morphometric features of the normal inferior turbinate., Study Design: A prospective, nonrandomized study., Methods: Sixteen specimens were removed at autopsy and during septoplasty operations, stained with H&E, and investigated microscopically. The soft tissue and bony elements were measured. Morphometric analysis included measurements of the relative proportions of the soft tissue constituents., Results: The medial mucosal layer is thicker than the bone and the lateral mucosa; the difference between the mucosal layers is statistically significant. The inferior turbinate is almost exclusively covered with a pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium that houses more goblet cells on its lateral side. It has a well-defined basement membrane zone that is significantly thicker on the medial side. The main bulk of the inferior turbinate is the lamina propria that is built of loose connective tissue and superficially harbors an inflammatory cell infiltrate. The area fraction of glands in the lateral mucosa significantly exceeds that of the medial and inferior mucosal layers, whereas that of venous sinusoids varies significantly, with the greatest difference inferiorly. Decreased proportion of glands and an increase in venous sinusoids are associated with advanced age. The cancellous central bony layer is made of interwoven trabeculae and houses the major arterial supply of the turbinate. After the major arteries exit the bone, they lie in the deepest portions of the medial and lateral mucosal layers but are missing from the inferior layer., Conclusion: In-depth histomorphometric analysis can assist in developing new function-preserving approaches to turbinate surgery.

To validate use of the common cotton-eared marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) in inhalation toxicity studies, its nasal morphology was examined. The nasal turbinates each consisted of one maxilloturbinate and one ethmoturbinate: these were more planar in structure than the comparable structures of rodents or dogs. The nasal cavity epithelia comprised squamous epithelium (SE), nasal transitional epithelium (NTE), respiratory epithelium (RE) and olfactory epithelium (OE), listed in order of occurrence from anterior to posterior positions. NTE was distributed as a narrow band lying between SE and RE. OE was limited to the dorsal part of the cavity, which was structurally similar to that of the macaque or man. Overall, this study revealed structural the similarity of the whole nasal cavity in the marmoset to that of macaques or humans. Prediction of nasal cavity changes in man based on extrapolation from experimentally induced changes in the common marmoset therefore seems likely to be feasible, making it a useful animal model for inhalation studies.

As a result of histological investigation performed in nasal cavities of 28 persons died at the age of 17-82 years of age and in two human fetuses at the age of 30 and 40 weeks, it has been established that in the mucosal tunic of the concha nasalis besides nutritive arteries of a common structure, shunt arteries, having a complete analogy with the cochlear arteries of the cavernous bodies of the genital organs, are common findings. They have a narrow lumen, thick middle tunic consisting of epithelioid cells, no elastic membrane and are opened according to the glomal anastomosis type or the cochlear labyrinth type into the lacunae of the cavernous bodies. Therefore, the nasal cavernous bodies should be regarded as true ones. They occur constantly but alternate with venous plexuses, since they are situated together with the latter in the fibrous stroma of the tunica mucosa. They are hermetizing venous structures.